For starters, it’s important to remember a little bit and understand from the knowledge of physics, without them learning gas exchange and gas transport at the knees, awkwardly. However, the atmospheric air may fill the permanent 100-square-meter gas warehouse. This noticeable steeliness is also characteristic of the alveolar tissue, because it not only replaces the layers, but comes into direct contact with the pneumocytes that line the alveoli. True, O2 in the alveolar space is less than in the atmospheric one (14 and 21%, similar), and CO2 is significantly higher (5.5 versus 0.03% in the atmospheric), but the same value (14 and 5.5%) permanently (the difference between the alveolar and atmospheric air flows is the result of gas exchange, which is constantly expected to be present regardless of the time of extraction, as well as the way out, whether the person or not).
And now let’s introduce a more physical understanding. partial pressure to gas. In the air, represented in the form of a gas bag, it is proportional to the percentage of gas in the gas chamber. The atmospheric pressure is apparently 760 mmHg. The pressure of the gas mixture in the alveolar air is slightly less, since part of it fell on the volume of water vapor growing in the respiratory system, and became 713 mm Hg. Now it doesn’t matter whether the partial pressure in the alveolar air is broken down into simple proportions by oxygen and carbon dioxide. If the gas pressure is 713 mm Hg, and the acid level is 14%, then the partial pressure of O2 is 100 mm Hg. The same value is known for carbonic acid - it is more than 40 mm Hg. It is important to remember that the partial pressure of both gases in the alveolar air is the same force with which the molecules of these gases are forced to penetrate the aerohematine barrier in the blood of the alveoli.
What is important for such a transition? It turns out that the blood plasma has enough of these gases. The stench is there in the damaged appearance, and, moreover, they themselves do not mind leaving the disorder in the alveolar cavity. It flows in here gas voltage What is there in the country? Gas tension is a quantity that characterizes the force of the molecules of a broken gas to move from the water medium into the gas. In physical terms, the concepts of “partial pressure” and “stress” are very close, but lie at different levels: the first – to the gas chamber, and the other – to the middle. The worst thing about it is that you have to stand up to each other alone. If the partial pressure, say, of CO2 increased the stress of CO2 in the blood, then the overload of carbon dioxide would not be prevented in one way or another.
And yet, gas exchange occurs. And there is a significant difference in the characteristics of the partial pressure of gases that are in the alveolar air from the tension of the gases themselves that are in the blood plasma. Look at the little right-handed one. Let's get it out of the way. Blood flows to the leg behind the legen artery system, low in O2, and the voltage in it reaches 40 mm Hg. Blood flows through the capillaries at the interalveolar walls, then through an aerohematic barrier it drains from the alveoli, in which the partial pressure of O2 reaches 100 mm Hg. Then we expect a difference of 40 and 100! Naturally, O2 is directly released into the blood and is released into the blood until the pressure of the gas increases to 96 mm Hg. When arterial blood becomes sour, it collects in the leg veins, so that the leg veins are drained through them.
A different situation arises with CO2. The blood that reaches the entire body through small vessels contains a lot of CO2 (46 mm Hg), and the partial pressure of CO2 in the alveoli is less than 40 mm. This means the release of carbon dioxide from plasma through a barrier for further absorption in the alveolar air, which leads to a decrease in CO2 pressure to 39 mm Hg.
Behind transport kisnyu From leg to tissue, red blood cells are an important indicator. When tension begins to build up in the blood capillaries, hemoglobin in erythrocytes begins to spit out O2 molecules from the plasma, gradually transforming into oxyhemoglobin. In this form the jelly itself is carried to the organs and tissues. Oxyhemoglobin “leads” to O2, which is returned to the plasma, and another series begins - gas exchange occurs between the blood and tissues.
All cells in the body need sour, because... This gas itself is a universal oxidizing agent in processes. Vicoric acid in biochemical reactions, cells retain the necessary energy and carbon dioxide, which is released between cells. Since not all tissues are in direct contact with the capillaries, the reliable intermediary between them is the tissue core, as will be discussed in the paragraphs about the internal core of the body and about lymph. From the tissue core of the cell, the jelly is taken from the capillary, and it “exits” carbon dioxide to the carbon dioxide. In other words, tissue gas exchange occurs primarily between the blood plasma and the tissues of the body. And there everything is already happening behind the same mechanism. Browse again to the table in Fig. 66. The O2 voltage in the tissue region is small (40 mm Hg), which cannot be said about the blood of the arteries (96 mm Hg). Therefore, the acid necessary for the cells moves from the plasma into the tissue until the tension in the blood reaches 40 mm Hg. CO2 gas, at the same time as its greater voltage (46 mm Hg at the center of the tissues) is directed directly into the blood plasma, where its voltage becomes 39 mm Hg, bringing it to 46. Blood with such indicators of O2 and CO2 (40 mm and 46 mm Hg) will be venous and flow through the veins of the great stake to the right side of the heart, the blood is sent to promote gas exchange in the human leg.
Transport of carbon dioxide in the human body, the building is condemned by the blood of three paths. A small part of the gas is released from the plasma, which means less CO2 from the blood. Most of the CO2 now comes into contact with the hemoglobin of the red blood cells, combines with it, converting into carboxyhemoglobin. Well, all the CO2 that is lost is transported in acidic salts of carbonic acid (most often NaHCO3). It is important that no matter how the carbon dioxide is transported, it is necessary to bring the gas to the levels for further removal from the human body.
Well, if we try to briefly summarize, we can say what is happening 2 stages of gas exchange: leather and fabric. In the pulmonary stage, the difference between the partial pressure of gas in the alveolar air and the pressure of gas in the blood is mainly important. For the tissue stage, the difference in tension between the gases in the blood and the tissue will be the basis. Myself gas transport It is obligatory because the gases are present in a broken form, or in a bound form, because the molecules of gases combine with ions or a hemoglobin molecule.
Diagnosis is the most important function of the body, it will ensure the support of the optimal level of oxidative processes in cells, cell nutrition.
In the process of breathing, the participation of specialized organs (nose, legs, diaphragm, heart) and cells (red blood cells, nerve cells, chemoreceptors of blood vessels and nerve cells of the brain, which create the respiratory center) takes place.
Intellectually, the process of metabolism can be divided into three main stages: external metabolism, transport of gases (acidic acid and carbon dioxide) through the blood (between the lungs and cells) and tissue metabolism (oxidation of tissues in tissues).
External Dikhannya- gas exchange between the body and in excess atmospheric air.
Transport of gases by blood. The main carrier of acid is hemoglobin, a protein found in the middle of red blood cells. Additional hemoglobin transports up to 20% carbon dioxide.
Fabric and internal care. This process can be mentally divided into two: the exchange of gases between the blood and tissues, the production of acidity by the tissues and the production of carbon dioxide (internal cellular, endogenous respiration).
Obviously, the state of health is determined by the state of the respiratory function, and the reserve capacity of the body, the reserve of health, lies in the reserve capacity of the respiratory system.
Transport of gases by blood
In the body, acidity and carbon dioxide are transported by blood. Oxygen, which passes from the alveolar air into the blood, binds to the hemoglobin of erythrocytes, creating the so-called oxyhemoglobin, and in this form is delivered to the tissues. In tissue capillaries, sourness is spit out and transformed into tissue, where it enters into oxidative processes. High hemoglobin binds water and is converted into so-called new hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide, which dissolves in tissues, passes through the blood and reaches red blood cells. Then part of the carbon dioxide combines with the new hemoglobin, creating the so-called carbhemoglobin, and in this form the carbon dioxide is delivered to the leg. However, most of the carbon dioxide in erythrocytes is converted into bicarbonate through the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which passes into the plasma and is transported to the lungs. In the blood capillaries, bicarbonate is broken down by a special enzyme and carbon dioxide is produced. Carbon dioxide is released into hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide passes into the alveolar through and through the air, which is seen and released into the outer middle.
3….Khar-ka to the process of protecting the organization from the influx of officials from outside and into the middle. Naturally occurring furs: crazy dry reflexes, barrier functions of the skin and mucous membranes, adaptation syndrome
The skin is closely connected with all organs and systems of the body. It has a number of important functions, the main ones being drying, dihalation, absorption, visibility, pigment-setting. In addition, the skin plays a role in judicial reactions, thermoregulation, metabolic processes, and nerve-reflex reactions in the body.
Zahisna function The skins are very different. Mechanical protection from external species is ensured by a thick horny ball, especially on the dorsum and soles. The skin of these authorities is designed to provide support for mechanical inflows - pressure, impacts, explosions, etc.
The skin significantly protects the body from radiation effects. Infrared zones may be completely covered by the horny ball, ultraviolet - often. Penetrating into the epidermis, UV-exchanges stimulate pigmentation. melanin, which absorbs UV radiation and thereby protects the skin from the unwanted influx of above-ground radiation and insolation (replacement of solar radiation)
At zakhista vid chemical species The keratin of the horny ball plays a great role. The main barrier for the penetration of electrolytes, non-electrolytes, and also water into the skin is the prosperous ball and the largest part of the horny ball, which are rich in cholesterol.
Protection against microorganisms be protected by bactericidal authorities of the skin. The number of different microorganisms on the surface of a healthy human skin varies around 115 thousand. up to 32 million per 1 cm square. Untreated skin is impenetrable to microorganisms.
Adaptive syndrome - a set of chemical reactions in the body of a person or creature (most importantly the endocrine system) under stress. In the adaptation syndrome, there are stages of anxiety (mobilization of dry forces), resistance (presistence in a difficult situation), and depression (with strong and extreme stress, this can result in death). Concepts of adaptation syndrome and stress by G. Selie.
The development of adaptation syndrome can be seen in three stages:
Stage worries: lasts for many years up to two days. Includes two phases - shock and prolongation (the remaining phase involves the mobilization of chemical reactions in the body).
At the stage supportability The body's resistance to various infusions has been extended. The next stage is carried out either until stabilization or is replaced by the remaining stage of precipitation.
Stage visnazhennya: cold reactions are weakened, the body itself and the psyche are tired.
Adaptation syndrome also has physiological signs: increased measles of the adrenal glands, changes in the thymus gland, spleen and lymph nodes, impaired exchange of speech due to disturbances in the processes of disintegration.
KVITOK 27
Cycle of heart activities
The mechanical functioning of the heart is related to the shortening of the myocardium. The work of the right pump is less than that of the left pump.
From a mechanical point of view, the heart is a pump of rhythmic action, which is controlled by the valve apparatus. Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart will ensure an uninterrupted flow of blood. The shortening of the heart's flesh is called systole, yo relaxation - diastole. During the cutaneous systole of the shunts, blood is drained from the heart into the aorta and legenevy stovbur.
In most minds, systole and diastole are clearly related to the hour. The period, which includes one shortening and further relaxation of the heart, becomes heart cycle. Its duration in an adult is 0.8 seconds, with a frequency of approximately 70 - 75 times per person. The beginning of the cutaneous cycle is anterior systole. Vaughn lasts 0.1 sec. After the end of the systole, the atrium begins its diastole, as well as the systole of the sacs. The systole of the plugs lasts 0.3 sec. At the moment of systole, the pressure of the blood moves in the shanks. After the completion of the systole of the scapula, the phase of halal relaxation begins, which lasts 0.4 seconds. In general, the relaxation period of the anterior heart is 0.7 seconds, and the relaxation period of the heart is 0.5 seconds. FIZIOLISHNEYA of the substantive perIode of the ROSSLALENNELENNE POLAGA, in the same time, for the hour at the Mіocardi, the regional processes of the Klitins, Tobto, is the worship of the praznosti cheric m'yu.
2...Zalna character of organs of the diet: nasal empty
The main function of the preservation of human tissue is organic acids and their release from carbon dioxide. The respiratory system includes organs that perform the airway (nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi) and respiratory or gas exchange functions (lungs)
Nosova empty
The outer nose and the nasal empty space are separated. As the outer nose develops, the volume of nasal emptying increases. The nasal cavity is divided by a vertical nasal septum into two symmetrical halves, which are first informed of the external atmosphere through the external nose. nizdriv, and behind - from the nasopharynx for help Joan. On the side walls of these empty items are removed turbinates, to divide the skin half of the nasal cavity of the nasal passage. The lower nasal passage opens up nasolacrimal duct, Behind the nasal cavity you can see a small amount of mucus. The walls of the nasal cavity are lined with mucous membrane, composed of migratory epithelium.
The nasal drain is a specialized section of the upper airways, so what is inhaled here is prepared for the further rush along the airways and is subject to special processing:
· Warms up or cools down to body temperature;
· Refers to the mucus that is present in the nasal mucosa;
· It is cleansed and uninfected: the mucus envelops the particles of the saw, which settle on the mucus; mucus avenge bactericidal resin - lysozyme, for the help of which we recognize the ruin of disease-causing bacteria;
· amenable to chemical control: the mucous membrane of the upper part of the nasal drainage is dissolved smell receptors.
The bow empty space contains additional empty space. paranasal sinuses, grown in the bloody bones of the skull: at the upper cleft maxillary sinus, at the frontal kist - frontal sinus, as well as additional empties in a wedge-like and raked brush. Inflammation of the mucous membrane of these sinuses can lead to serious illness sinusitis and frontal sinusitis.
We took a good look at how the wind was draining the legen. Now it’s important that we continue with him.
Blood circulation system
We decided that the jelly in the storage of atmospheric wind should be near the alveoli, and through this thin wall, for additional diffusion, pass to the capillary, so that the alveoli are surrounded by a thick mesh. The capillaries join in the vein of the leg, which carries blood, filled with acid, at the heart, and more precisely in the left atrium. The heart works like a pump, pumping blood throughout the body. From the left atrium, the blood is rich in acidity, destroying the left sac, and leading to a large amount of blood flow, to organs and tissues. Having exchanged living fluids between the capillaries of the body and the tissues, having added sourness and taken away carbon dioxide, the blood collects from the vein and comes to the right anterior heart, and the blood flow is greatly stopped. The stars begin to appear soon.
Male colo begins in the right sac, the veins of the legen’s artery carry blood to “charging” acidity in the leg, dissolving and enveloping the alveoli with a capillary network. Let's start again - along the leg veins in the left anterior heart and so endlessly. To demonstrate the effectiveness of this process, find out that the hour of complete blood circulation becomes only 20-23 seconds. During this hour, the volume of blood rises to the surface and there is a great deal of blood flow.
In order to saturate such a scarce center as shelter, it is necessary to take into account the following factors:
The acidity and carbon dioxide in the air that is inhaled (air storage)
Efficiency of ventilation of the alveoli (the area of the closure on which the exchange of gases between the blood and air is possible)
Efficiency of alveolar gas exchange (efficiency of the structures that ensure blood flow and gas exchange)
Warehouse of breathed, breathed and alveolar air
In the greatest minds, people breathe in the atmospheric winds, like a permanently stable warehouse. The wind you see now has less acidity and more carbon dioxide. The least acidity and the most carbon dioxide in the alveolar air. The importance of the storage of the alveolar air, which can be seen, is explained by the fact that the rest is the madness of the dead space and the alveolar air.
The alveolar air is the internal gaseous medium of the body. In this warehouse there is a gas warehouse for arterial blood. Regulatory mechanisms promote the elasticity of the alveolar airway, which during quiet breathing is not enough to lie between the phases of inspiration and vision. For example, instead of CO2, the inhalation amount is 0.2-0.3% less, and at the same time, I see that less than 1/7 of the alveolar space is replaced by skin inhalation fragments.
In addition, gas exchange in the legs proceeds uninterruptedly, regardless of the phases of inhalation or when it occurs, which contributes to the vibrating storage of the alveolar air. With deep breathing, due to an increase in the speed of ventilation of the leg, the concentration of alveolar air in the inhalation and visually increases. In this case, it is necessary to remember that the concentration of gases “on the axis” of the wind flow and on this “Uzbichchi” will also increase: the flow of the wind “along the axis” will be wider and the warehouse will approach the warehouse of the atmospheric wind. In the area of the upper legs, the alveoli are ventilated less effectively, while in the lower leg areas, they adhere to the diaphragm.
Ventilation of the alveoli
Gas exchange between the air and blood occurs in the alveoli. All other warehouses are only used for delivery to your place. Therefore, what is important is not the magnitude of ventilation of the legs, but the amount of ventilation of the alveoli themselves. There is less for ventilation than for the amount of ventilation of dead space. So, in case of contagious air intake, which is more than 8000 ml and a frequency of breathing 16 per chilli, ventilation of the dead space in the warehouse is 150 ml x 16 = 2400 ml. Ventilation of the alveoli is up to 8000 ml - 2400 ml = 5600 ml. With that very same requirement, breathing is 8000 ml and the frequency of breathing is 32 per cold, ventilation of the dead space in the warehouse is 150 ml x 32 = 4800 ml, and ventilation of the alveoli is 8000 ml - 4800 ml = 3200 ml, then. will be twice the least, less than the first. the star is screaming first practical idea, the effectiveness of ventilation of the alveoli depends on the depth and frequency of breathing.
The amount of ventilation in the lungs is regulated by the body in such a way as to ensure a constant gas supply in the alveolar air. Thus, when the concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air increases, breathing increases, and when it decreases, it changes. The regulatory mechanism of this process is not in the alveoli. The depth and frequency of breathing are regulated by the respiratory center on the basis of information about acidity and carbon dioxide in the blood.
Exchange of gases in the alveoli
Gas exchange in the legs occurs as a result of the diffusion of oxygen from the alveolar air into the blood (about 500 l per day) and carbon dioxide from the blood into the alveolar air (about 430 l per day). Diffusion results from the difference between the pressure of these gases in the alveolar air and in the blood.
Diffusion is the mutual penetration of primary speech into one as a result of the thermal flow of speech particles. Diffusion occurs by directly reducing the concentration of speech and leading to an even distribution of speech throughout the volume that is occupied by it. Thus, the concentration of oxygen in the blood is reduced until it penetrates through the membrane of the air-blood (aerohematic) barrier, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood is above the normal level until it is seen in the alveolar region. Anatomically, the blood-and-blood barrier is represented by the legene membrane, which is composed of endothelial capillary cells, two main membranes, squamous alveolar epithelium, and a surfactant ball. The thickness of the Lehenya membrane is less than 0.4-1.5 microns.
Surfactant is a surface-active substance that facilitates the diffusion of gases. By disrupting the synthesis of surfactant by the cells of the lung epithelium, it is practically impossible to stop the process of breathing through a sharp increase in the level of diffusion of gases.
The jelly that comes from the blood and the carbon dioxide brought in by the blood can be either in a broken form or in a chemically bound form. The average mind can easily tolerate a small amount of these gases, which can easily be obtained in an assessment of the body's needs. For simplicity, it is important to note that the bulk of the acid and carbon dioxide is transported at the bonding station.
Transport Kisnyu
Kisen is transported in the form of oxyhemoglobin. Oxyhemoglobin is a complex of hemoglobin and molecular acid.
Hemoglobin is located in red blood cells. red blood cells. Red blood cells under a microscope look like crumbs of a sputtering donut. This unique form allows erythrocytes to interact with extra blood, a larger area, and less dense cells (from a body that has an equal volume, but has a minimal area). And in addition, the red blood cell is compressed into a tube, squeezing through a narrow capillary and reaching the most distant parts of the body.
In 100 ml of blood at body temperature, less than 0.3 ml of acid is released. The sauerkraut, which is released in the blood plasma of the capillaries of the small blood flow, diffuses into the erythrocytes, is directly bound to hemoglobin, which soothes oxyhemoglobin, in which sauerkraut is 190 ml/l. The fluidity associated with the sourness is great - the hour of the clay of the sourness, which, having diffused, vibrates in thousandths of a second. In the capillaries of the alveoli with similar ventilation and blood supply, almost all the hemoglobin of the incoming blood is converted into oxyhemoglobin. And the axis itself is the fluidity of the diffusion of gases “back and forth”, which significantly increases the fluidity of the binding of gases.
the star is screaming another practical visnovok: in order for gas exchange to be successful, it is necessary to “eliminate pauses” every hour, during which time the concentration of gases in the alveolar air and the blood that flows in increases, so that a pause is obligatory By inhaling and seeing.
The transformation of renewed (acid-free) hemoglobin (deoxyhemoglobin) into oxidized (acidified) hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin) is stored instead of dissolved acid in a rare part of the blood plasma. Moreover, the mechanisms for assimilation of broken sour are much more effective.
For example, rising to a height of 2 km above the sea level is accompanied by a decrease in atmospheric pressure from 760 to 600 mm Hg. Art., partial pressure of acid in the alveolar air from 105 to 70 mm Hg. Art., and instead of oxyhemoglobin decreases by only 3%. And, regardless of the decrease in atmospheric pressure, fabrics can be successfully treated with sourness.
In tissues that need to be absorbed for normal life, there is a lot of sourness (meats that are processed, liver, sourdough, slimy tissues), oxyhemoglobin “gives” sourness even more actively, sometimes even more completely. In tissues in which the intensity of oxidative processes is low (for example, in adipose tissue), most of the oxyhemoglobin is not “given” by molecular acid - rhubarb
dissociation of oxyhemoglobin is low. The transition of tissues from calm to activity (shortening of ulcers, secretion of tissues) automatically creates the effect of increasing the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin and increasing the supply of acid to the tissues.
The ability of hemoglobin to “quench” sourness (the ability of hemoglobin to sour) decreases with increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide (Bohr effect) and water ions. A similar effect on the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin is the increase in temperature.
Life becomes easy to understand, as natural processes interact and are balanced. Changing the content of oxyhemoglobin and reducing acidity is of great importance for the maintenance of tissue tissue. In fabrics where the metabolic processes are intense, the concentration of carbon dioxide and water ions increases, and the temperature rises. This will speed up the release of sourness by hemoglobin and make it easier to skip metabolic processes.
The fibers of skeletal meat contain myoglobin close to hemoglobin. The wine has a very high sourness to the point of sourness. Having “huddled together” for a molecule of sourness, you will not be able to get it from the shelter.
The sourness of the blood
The maximum acidity that can bind the blood due to the complete saturation of hemoglobin with acid is called acidity of the blood. The acidic capacity of the blood is stored together with hemoglobin.
In arterial blood, instead of less acidity (by 3-4%), the lower acidity capacity of the blood. In most cases, 1 liter of arterial blood equals 180-200 ml of acid. It turns out that in these cases, if in experimental minds people breathe pure sourness, the quantity in the arterial blood practically corresponds to sour capacity. When exposed to atmospheric air, the sourness that can be tolerated increases slightly (by 3-4%).
Venous blood will calmly contain approximately 120 ml/l acid. In this way, flowing through the tissue capillaries, the blood does not give up all the sourness.
The part of the acid that is absorbed by tissues from the arterial blood is called the coefficient of acid utilization. To calculate this, divide the difference between acidity in arterial and venous blood and multiply by 100.
For example:
(200-120): 200 x 100 = 40%.
At rest, the rate of utilization of acid by the body ranges from 30 to 40%. With intensive meat processing, wine increases to 50-60%.
Transport of carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three forms. In venous blood you can see close to 58 vol. % (580 ml/l) CO2, and only about 2.5% by volume remain in the dissolved state. About half of the CO2 molecules combine with hemoglobin in erythrocytes, creating carbohemoglobin (approximately 4.5 vol.%). Reshta C02 is chemically bound and contains the form of carbonic acid salts (approximately 51 vol. %).
Carbon dioxide is one of the most common products of chemical reactions in the metabolism of substances. It continuously dissolves in living cells and diffuses the blood of tissue capillaries. In erythrocytes, it combines with water and creates carbonic acid (C02 + H20 = H2C03).
This process is catalyzed (happens twenty thousand times) by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is found in erythrocytes, but not in blood plasma. Incl. The process of combining carbon dioxide with water occurs only in red blood cells. This is a reverse process, which can be changed directly. Depending on the concentration of carbon dioxide, carbonic anhydrase catalyzes both the creation of carbonic acid and its splitting into carbon dioxide and water (at the capillaries of the leg).
As a result of the processes involved, the concentration of CO2 in erythrocytes is low. Therefore, new amounts of CO2 continue to diffuse throughout the red blood cells. The accumulation of ions in the middle of erythrocytes is accompanied by movements of the osmotic pressure, as a result of which the water content of the inner middle of erythrocytes increases. Therefore, the accumulation of erythrocytes in the capillaries of the great blood flow is growing rapidly.
Hemoglobin is more susceptible to acidity than to carbon dioxide, so in the process of partial displacement of acid, carbohemoglobin is converted initially into deoxyhemoglobin, and then into oxyhemoglobin.
In addition, when oxyhemoglobin is converted into hemoglobin, more carbon dioxide is bound to carbon dioxide in the blood. This phenomenon is called the Haldane effect. Hemoglobin serves as a carrier of potassium cations (K+), the necessary binding of carbonic acid in the form of carbonic acid salts - bicarbonates.
Also, in the erythrocytes of the tissue capillaries, additional potassium bicarbonate, as well as carbohemoglobin, is created. This type of carbon dioxide can be tolerated until the end.
In the capillaries of the small blood supply, the concentration of carbon dioxide decreases. CO2 is released from carbohemoglobin. Oxyhemoglobin is immediately released, and its dissociation increases. Oxyhemoglobin removes potassium from bicarbonates. Carbohydric acid in erythrocytes (in the presence of carbonic anhydrase) quickly decomposes into H20 and CO2. Kolo completed.
I forgot to make one more note. Carbon dioxide (CO) has a higher affinity for hemoglobin, less carbon dioxide (CO2) and sour. Therefore, when exposed to fumes, gases are not safe: by binding to hemoglobin, fumes block the normal transport of gases and actually “choke” the body. Residents of large places constantly inhale increased concentrations of fumes. This leads to the introduction of enough high-grade erythrocytes in the minds of normal blood flow, which results in the unavailability of transport functions. This is the inconvenience and heart attacks of healthy people in the minds of traffic jams.
- < Назад
- This is a physiological process that ensures the entry of acid into the body and the removal of carbon dioxide. Dihanna occurs in several stages:
- external ventilation (ventilation);
- (between the alveolar airways and the blood of the capillaries of the small blood flow);
- transport of gases by blood;
- exchange of gases in tissues (between the blood of the capillaries of the great blood flow and tissue tissues);
- internal metabolism (biological oxidation in cell mitochondria).
The first few processes are involved. Internal health in a biochemistry course.
2.4.1. Transport is bloody sour
Functional transport system- The totality of the structures of the cardiovascular apparatus, blood and their regulatory mechanisms that create a dynamic self-regulatory organization, the activity of all storage elements that create diffusion zeros and gradients and pO2 between the blood and tissue cells and ensures adequate supply of acid to the body.
The method of its operation is to minimize the difference between the consumption and production of acid. Oksidazny way vikoristannya kisnyu, associated with oxidation and phosphorylation in the mitochondria of Lancjuga tissue metabolism, which is the greatest in a healthy organism (about 96-98% of the excreted acid is absorbed). The process of transporting acid into the body will also ensure it antioxidant zachist.
- Hyperoxia- Movements instead of acidity in the body.
- Hypoxia - decreases instead of acidity in the body.
- Hypercapnia- Displacement of carbon dioxide in the body.
- Hypercapnemia- Increases carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
- Hypocapnia- Reduction of carbon dioxide in the body.
- Hypocapemia decreases in carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
Small 1. Dihanna process diagram
Pozhivannya kisnyu- a lot of sourness, which is absorbed by the body within an hour (at rest, 200-400 ml/hour).
The stage of blood saturation is sour- Add sourness to the blood up to its sour capacity.
The consumption of gases in the blood is usually expressed in volumetric units (pro%). This indicator shows the volume of gas in milliliters found in 100 ml of blood.
Kisen is transported by blood in two forms:
- physical disorder (0.3%);
- in connection with hemoglobin (15-21 percent).
The hemoglobin molecule, which is not associated with acid, is designated by the symbol Hb, and the acid (oxyhemoglobin) that is added is HbO 2. The addition of acidity to hemoglobin is called oxygenation (saturation), and the addition of acidity is called deoxygenation or renewal (desaturation). Hemoglobin plays a major role in the transport of acid. One molecule of hemoglobin, upon full oxygenation, binds several molecules to acidity. One gram of hemoglobin binds and transports 1.34 ml of acid. Knowing that instead of hemoglobin in the blood, it is easy to dissolve the sour capacity of the blood.
Kisneva blood capacity- There is a lot of sourness associated with hemoglobin, which is found in 100 ml of blood, when it is completely saturated with sourness. If the blood contains 15 g% hemoglobin, then the acidic capacity of the blood is 15. 1.34 = 20.1 ml sour.
In normal minds, hemoglobin binds sourness in the tissue capillaries and gives it special powers in tissues, which lie in low factors. The main factor that influences the production of sourness by hemoglobin is the amount of acidity in the blood, which is due to the amount of acidity dissolved in it. The extent of hemoglobin binding to oxygen under pressure is described by a curve, which is called the dissociation curve of oxyhemoglobin (Fig. 2.7). On the graph, the vertical line shows hundreds of hemoglobin molecules bound to acid (%HbO 2), and the horizontal line shows acid pressure (pO 2). The curve shows the change in %HbO 2 due to the acidity of blood plasma. Vaughn has an S-like appearance with bends in the area of tension 10 and 60 mm Hg. Art. As pO 2 in the plasma becomes higher, oxygenation of hemoglobin begins to increase at the same time as the linear increase in oxygen tension.
Small 2. Dissociation curves: a - at the same temperature (T = 37 ° C) and different pCO 2: I- oxymyoglobin in normal conditions (pCO 2 = 40 mm Hg); 2 - okenhemoglobin for normal people (pCO 2 = 40 mm Hg); 3 - okenhemoglobin (pCO 2 = 60 mm Hg); b - at a constant pС0 2 (40 mm Hg) and different temperatures
The reaction of hemoglobin binding to acidity is reversed, from the content of hemoglobin to sourness, which, in turn, is due to the stress of acidity in the blood:
In case of extreme partial pressure, the pressure in the alveolar space becomes close to 100 mm Hg. Art., this gas diffuses into the blood of the capillaries of the alveoli, creating pressure, close to the partial pressure of acid in the alveoli. The contention of hemoglobin to the point of sourness in these minds is advancing. From the induced experiment it is clear that the reaction collapses when okenhemoglobin is created. Oxygenation of hemoglobin leaving the alveoli of arterial blood reaches 96-98%. Through shunting of blood between small and large stakes, oxygenation of hemoglobin in the arteries of the systemic blood flow decreases, reaching 94-98%.
The oxygenation of hemoglobin to acidity is characterized by the magnitude of oxygen tension, in which 50% of hemoglobin molecules are oxygenated. Yogo is called stress it is designated by the symbol P 50. An increase in P 50 indicates a decrease in hemoglobin sporidity to the point of sourness, and a decrease indicates an increase. At the level of P 50 there are a lot of factors: temperature, acidity of the midstream, voltage 2, and 2,3-diphosphoglycerate in the erythrocytes. For venous blood P 50 is close to 27 mm Hg. Art., and for arterial – up to 26 mm Hg. Art.
Through the blood vessels of the microcirculatory bed, the acidity and stress gradient gradually diffuses in the tissue and the stress in the blood changes. At the same time, the stress of carbon dioxide, acidity, and the temperature of the blood of tissue capillaries will increase. This is accompanied by a decrease in the content of hemoglobin to acidity and accelerated dissociation of oxyhemoglobin with the release of acid, which breaks down and diffuses in the tissue. The fluidity of the acidity in the binding with hemoglobin and its diffusion satisfies the consumption of tissues (including those that are highly sensitive to acid loss), with the content of HbO 2 in the arterial blood being more than 94%. If HbO 2 is reduced to less than 94%, it is recommended to continue the sessions until the saturation of hemoglobin is increased, and with 90% of the tissue, it is necessary to recognize sour starvation and it is necessary to continue the term sessions to reduce delivery of sour to them.
When oxygenation of hemoglobin decreases to less than 90%, and PO 2 in the blood drops below 60 mm Hg. Art., call hypoxemia.
Pointed to Fig. 2.7 indicators of Hb sporidity to O 2 are observed at baseline, normal body temperature and carbon dioxide pressure in arterial blood of 40 mm Hg. Art. With an increase in the level of carbon dioxide in the blood or the concentration of H+ protons, the hemoglobin sporidity to acidity decreases, and the HbO 2 dissociation curve slopes to the right. This phenomenon is called the Bohr effect. In the body, increased pCO 2 is present in tissue capillaries, which causes greater deoxygenation of hemoglobin and oxygen delivery to tissues. A decrease in hemoglobin sporidity to acidity occurs when 2,3-diphosphoglycerate accumulates in erythrocytes. Through the synthesis of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate, the body can utilize the fluidity of HbO2 dissociation. In elderly people, instead of this, the fluid in the erythrocytes is shifted, which prevents the development of tissue hypoxia.
An increase in body temperature reduces the content of hemoglobin to acidity. As body temperature decreases, the HbO 2 dissociation curve slopes to the left. Hemoglobin more actively absorbs sourness, and imparts less of it to tissues. This is one of the reasons why, when placed in cold (4-12 ° C) water, good swimmers can quickly feel a slight muscle weakness. Hypothermia and hypoxia of the musculoskeletal ends develop due to a change in blood flow in them and a decrease in HbO 2 dissociation.
An analysis of the course of the HbO 2 dissociation curve shows that pO 2 in the alveolar air can decrease from as little as 100 mm Hg. Art. up to 90 mm Hg Art., and oxygenation of hemoglobin is preserved at the same level (change by only 1-2%). This peculiarity of sporidity with hemoglobin allows the body to adapt to acidity until the ventilation of the lungs decreases and the atmospheric pressure decreases (for example, living in the mountains). However, in the area of low tension, the blood acidity of tissue capillaries (10-50 mm Hg) across the curve changes sharply. At the cutaneous level of decreased tension, acid is deoxygenated, a large number of oxyhemoglobin molecules are deoxygenated, diffusion of acid from erythrocytes in the blood plasma increases, and due to the increase in tension in the blood, the mind is created for reliable baked textiles sour.
Other officials are infusing the connection between hemoglobin and oxygen. In practice, it is important to take into account those whose hemoglobin has a very high (240-300 times higher, almost sour) content of vaporous gas (CO). The combination of hemoglobin with CO is called carboxyheluglobin. When the skin of the victim is removed, local hyperemia may cause a cherry-cherry color to appear. The ZI molecule attaches to the heme atom and thereby blocks the ability of hemoglobin to bind to the acid. In addition, in the presence of hemoglobin molecules, which are associated with acidity, they contribute less to the tissues. The HbO 2 dissociation curve slopes to the left. Apparently, in the presence of 0.1% CO in the blood, more than 50% of the hemoglobin molecules are converted into carboxyhemoglobin, and even with 20-25% HbCO in the blood, people need medical assistance. When suffering from fumes, it is important to ensure that the patient inhales clean gas. This increases the speed of HbCO dissociation by 20 times. In normal life, instead of HbCO in the blood, it becomes 0-2%, after smoking a cigarette it can increase to 5% or more.
In the presence of strong oxidizing acid, it is necessary to create a mycine chemical binder with the release of heme, for which the release atom becomes trivalent. This type of hemoglobin with sourness is called methemoglobin. You can’t make fabrics sour. Methemoglobin destroys the dissociation curve of oxyhemoglobin to the left, thereby eliminating acid in the tissue capillaries. In healthy people in the most advanced minds, through the constant supply of oxidizing agents (peroxides, nitrogen-containing organic compounds, etc.) to the blood, up to 3% of the blood hemoglobin can appear as methemoglobin.
Low rhubarb instead promotes the functioning of antioxidant enzyme systems. The creation of methemoglobin is facilitated by antioxidants (glutathione and ascorbic acid) present in erythrocytes, and its transformation into hemoglobin occurs in the process of enzymatic reactions involving erythrocyte dehydrogenase enzymes. If these systems are insufficient or if substances (for example, phenacetin, antimalarial drugs, etc.) enter the bloodstream excessively and contain high oxidative levels, smoglobinism develops.
Hemoglobin easily interacts with a variety of other blood disorders. Zocrema, when interacting with medications, in place of sirka, sulfhemoglobin may be formed, which pushes the dissociation curve of oxyhemoglobin to the right.
In the blood of the fetus, fetal hemoglobin (HbF) is more important, which is more acidic than adult hemoglobin. In newborns, erythrocytes contain up to 70% of total hemoglobin. Hemoglobin F is replaced by HbA throughout the first half of life.
In the first year after birth, PO 2 of arterial blood becomes approximately 50 mm Hg. Art., and НbО 2 - 75-90%.
In elderly people, acidity in arterial blood and hemoglobin acidity gradually decrease. The size of this display is determined by the formula
pO 2 = 103.5-0.42. century at the rocks.
In connection with the tight connection between the saturated acids of hemoglobin in the blood and the tension in its acid, a method was broken down pulse oximetry, which is based on the widespread stasis in the clinic. This method is used to determine the saturation of hemoglobin in arterial blood with acid and its critical levels, when the tension in the blood becomes insufficient for its effective diffusion in tissues. And the stinks begin to smell sour from starvation (Fig. 3).
A modern pulse oximeter consists of a sensor that includes a light source, a photo receiver, a microprocessor and a display. The light from the LED goes directly through the tissue of the toe (toe), earlobe, and is absorbed by oxyhemoglobin. The unclayed part of the light flux is assessed by a photodetector. The photo receiver signal is processed by a microprocessor and sent to the display screen. The screen displays the hemoglobin acidity level, pulse rate and pulse curve.
On the crooked bastard, hemoglobin is visible to the hemoglobin, the hemoglobin arterial blood, the alveolar Kapіllards (Fig. 3), the rifles of the pour (SAO2 = 100%), and the mile of podge in the nye can become 100 mm Hg. Art. (PO2, = 100 mmHg). After the dissociation of oxygmoglobin in the tissues of the blood, it becomes deoxygenated and in the mixed venous blood, which rotates in the right atrium, in the minds of calm hemoglobin is deprived of saturated acid by 75% (Sv0 2 = 75%), and set the voltage to 40 mm. Art. (pvO2 = 40 mmHg). In this manner, about 25% (250 ml) of the tar, which was released from oxygmoglobin after its dissociation, was removed from the still tissues.
Small 3. Deposit of oxygen-saturated hemoglobin in arterial blood due to the tension in its acidity
When the saturation of hemoglobin in arterial blood is changed by 10%, it is acidic (SaO 2,<90%), диссоциирующий в тканях оксигемоглобин не обеспечивает достаточного напряжения кислорода в артериальной крови для его эффективной диффузии в ткани и они начинают испытывать кислородное голодание.
One of the important requirements that occurs during a steady measurement of the hemoglobin saturation of arterial blood with acidity by a pulse oximeter is detected at the moment when the intensity drops to a critical level (90%) and the patient needs It is useful to provide uncomplicated assistance aimed at improving the delivery of acid to tissues.
Transport of carbon dioxide and other compounds in the blood from the acid level of the blood
Carbon dioxide is transported by blood in the following forms:
- physical disorder - 2.5-3%;
- carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO 2) - 5 vol%;
- bicarbonates (NaHCO 3 and KHCO 3) - close to 50 vol%.
The blood that flows out of the tissues contains 56-58 vol% CO 2, and the arterial blood contains 50-52 vol%. When flowing through the tissue capillaries, the blood absorbs about 6 vol% CO 2, and in the tissue capillaries this gas diffuses into the alveolar air and is removed from the body. Especially fast is the exchange of CO 2 bound to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide is added to the amino groups of the hemoglobin molecule, which is also called carboxyhemoglobin carbaminohemoglobin. Most carbon dioxide is transported in the form of sodium and potassium salts of carbonic acid. The accelerated breakdown of carbonic acid in erythrocytes as they pass through the pulmonary capillaries is promoted by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. When pCO2 is below 40 mm Hg. Art. This enzyme catalyzes the breakdown of H 2 C0 3 into H 2 0 and C0 2, releasing carbon dioxide from the blood in the alveolar region.
The accumulation of carbon dioxide in the blood above the norm is called hypercapnic, and the decrease Hypocapnia. Hypercapia is accompanied by a change in blood pH to the acidic side. This is due to the fact that carbon dioxide, when combined with water, dissolves carbonic acid:
CO 2 + H 2 O = H 2 CO 3
Carugic acid dissociates according to the law of active masses:
N 2 3<->Н++ HCO 3 - .
Thus, external breathing through the infusion of carbon dioxide into the blood will inevitably contribute to the reduction of acidity in the body. For every 10 minutes, the human body is likely to remove approximately 15 TOV mmol of carbonic acid. Nirks are found in approximately 100 times less acids.
de pH - negative logarithm of proton concentration; рК 1 - Negative logarithm of the dissociation constant (К 1) of carbonic acid. For the ion core, which is the same as plasma, pK 1 = 6.1.
Concentration [СО2] can be replaced by voltage [рС0 2 ]:
[С02] = 0.03 рС02.
Todi pH = 6.1 + log / 0.03 рСО2.
Having substituted the values, we can remove them:
pH = 6.1 + log24/(0.03.40) = 6.1 + log20 = 6.1 + 1.3 = 7.4.
In this way, until the reaction / 0.03 рС0 2 to 20 the blood pH will be 7.4. A change in this relationship is required in case of acidosis or alkalosis, which may be caused by a disruption of the respiratory system.
Changes in acid-meadow conditions are caused by disturbances in metabolism and metabolism.
Dihal alkalosis develops when the leg is hyperventilated, for example, when traveling at altitude in the mountains. A little sourness in the air that is inhaled leads to an increase in ventilation of the lungs, and hyperventilation - to the excess removal of carbon dioxide from the blood. Comparison / рС0 2 occurs when anions are overloaded and blood pH increases. The increase in pH is accompanied by increased removal of bicarbonates from the tissue. When this occurs in the blood there is less, lower than normal, instead of HCO 3 anions - or so called “basic deficiency”.
Dihalic acidosis develops through the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues, caused by a lack of external breathing or blood circulation. With hypercapnia, the performance indicator/pCO 2 decreases. Then, the pH decreases (div. increases the level). This acidification can be quickly reduced by increasing ventilation.
In case of dicholic acidosis, nitric acid is more excreted from the section of protons, water from the storage of acid salts of phosphoric acid and ammonium (H2PO4- and NH4+). Along with the increased secretion of protons in water in the blood, the creation of anions of carbonic acid increases and their reabsorption into the blood increases. Instead of HCO 3 - the blood pH increases and returns to normal. This camp is called compensated by dicholic acidosis. Its presence can be judged by the pH value and the increase in excess (differences between blood tests and blood with normal acid levels.
Metabolic acidosis problems with the entry of excess acids into the body from the skin, disruption of metabolism and the introduction of medications. Increased concentrations of water ions in the blood lead to an increase in the activity of central and peripheral receptors that control the pH of the blood and liquor. The impulse is accelerated to reach the respiratory center and stimulates ventilation of the legs. Hypocapia develops. which effectively compensates for metabolic acidosis. Rhubarb in the blood decreases and is called shortage of basics.
Metabolic alkalosis develops with excessive intake of internal medicinal products, medicines, medicinal substances, with the loss of acidic metabolic products by the body, or with excessive exposure to anionic acids. The respiratory system responds to increased sleep/pCO2 by hypoventilation of the lungs and increased carbon dioxide tension in the blood. Hypercapnia develops and may compensate for alkalosis. However, such compensation is due to the fact that the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the blood is no more than a pressure of 55 mm Hg. Art. A sign of compensated metabolic alkalosis is the presence of too much support
Interactions between the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
There are three most important ways of interconnecting the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide with blood.
Relationships by type Bohr effect(An increase in pCO- reduces the content of hemoglobin to acidity).
Relationships by type Holden effect. The point is that with deoxygenation of hemoglobin, its affinity for carbon dioxide increases. The additional number of amino groups in hemoglobin, which binds carbon dioxide, increases. This is present in the tissue capillaries and the renewal of hemoglobin can accumulate carbon dioxide in large quantities, which comes out of the tissues in the blood. Combined with hemoglobin, up to 10% of all carbon dioxide is transported in the blood. In the blood of the pulmonary capillaries, hemoglobin is oxygenated, its content in carbon dioxide decreases, and about half of the fraction of carbon dioxide, which is easily exchanged, is released into the alveolar air I.
Another way is the interconnection of thoughts with the change of acidic properties of hemoglobin in storage due to the sourness. The values of the dissociation constants of these reactions when combined with carbonic acid may have the following relationship: Hb0 2 > H 2 C0 3 > Hb. Also, HbO2 has strong acidic properties. Therefore, after being established in the pulmonary capillaries, the vein takes up cations (K+) from bicarbonates (KHCO3) in exchange for H+ ions. As a result, H 2 CO 3 is created. With an increased concentration of carbonic acid in the erythrocyte, the carbonic anhydrase enzyme begins to collapse from the creation of CO 2 and H 2 0. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the alveolar surface. Itrya. Thus, oxygenation of hemoglobin in the legs eliminates the accumulation of bicarbonates and the removal of carbon dioxide accumulated in them from the blood.
The transformation that describes the substances that are found in the blood of the pulmonary capillaries can be written down in the form of the following symbolic reactions:
Deoxygenation of Нb0 2 in tissue capillaries transforms it into a connection with smaller, lower acidic properties of Н 2 С0 3. This will induce more reactions in the erythrocyte to flow in a reverse direction. Hemoglobin acts as a carrier of K ions for the creation of bicarbonates and the binding of carbon dioxide.
Transport of gases by blood
Carrier of sourness from the skin to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the skin and blood. A free (disordered) person can tolerate only a small amount of these gases. It is mainly the acidity and carbon dioxide that is transferred to the bonded plant.
Transport Kisnyu
Sour, which is released in the blood plasma of the capillaries of the small blood flow, diffuses into erythrocytes, binds directly to hemoglobin, soothing oxyhemoglobin. The fluidity associated with acid is high: the hour of infusion of hemoglobin with acid is approximately 3 ms. One gram of hemoglobin binds 1.34 ml of acid, 100 ml of blood 16 g of hemoglobin and, therefore, 19.0 ml of acid. This quantity is called sour blood volume(KEK).
The conversion of hemoglobin to oxyhemoglobin is indicated by a strained acid. Graphically, this storage is expressed by the dissociation curve of oxyhemoglobin (Fig. 6.3).
The baby can be seen to have a small partial pressure (40 mm Hg) with 75-80% hemoglobin associated with it.
With a vice 80-90 mm Hg. Art. hemoglobin may be completely sour.
Small 4. Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve
The dissociation curve has an S-shape and consists of two parts – steep and flat. The flat part of the curve, which indicates high (more than 60 mm Hg) acid pressure, indicates that in these minds, instead of oxyhemoglobin, it is less likely to lie weakly under the pressure of the acid and its partial pressure in the inhaled and al veolar wind. The upper canopy part of the curve dissociation reflects the fact that hemoglobin binds a great deal of sourness, regardless of the decrease in the partial pressure of the air that is inhaled. In the minds of the textiles, it will be necessary to become sour (the point of saturation).
The steep part of the dissociation curve corresponds to the stress of the acid and tissue of the body (35 mm Hg and lower). In fabrics that are rich in sourness (meat, liver, sour), oka and hemoglobin dissociate to a greater extent, sometimes to a greater extent. In tissues in which the intensity of oxidative processes is low, most oxyhemoglobin does not dissociate.
The power of hemoglobin is easily absorbed by sourness under slight pressure and is easy to give even carefully. Due to the easy supply of hemoglobin to the acid with a reduced partial pressure, uninterrupted processing of tissues with acid will be ensured, in which, as a result of the steady absorption of acid, the partial pressure is reduced to zero.
The breakdown of oxyhemoglobin into hemoglobin and acidity increases with changes in body temperature (Fig. 5).
Small 5. Curves of hemoglobin saturation for different minds:
A - dependent on the reaction of the media (pH); B - type of temperature; B - instead of salts; G - instead of carbon dioxide. Along the abcis axis - partial pressure (mm Hg). along the ordinate axis - saturation level (y%)
Dissociation of oxyhemoglobin occurs due to the reaction of the plasma midstream. With increased blood acidity, dissociation of oxyhemoglobin increases (Fig. 5, A).
The connection between hemoglobin and acidity in the water is limited, but its full saturation is not reached, as there is no possibility of a new release of acidity when the partial level decreases
vice. Greater saturation of hemoglobin with acidity and its increased release with reduced stress are observed in different salts and in blood plasma (div. Fig. 5, U).
The difference between carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide in the blood is particularly important: the more carbon dioxide in the blood, the less hemoglobin binds to acidity and the more dissociation occurs. I'm oxyhemoglobin. In Fig. 5 G shows the dissociation curve of oxyhemoglobin at different levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. The rate of hemoglobin combining with acid in the presence of carbon dioxide decreases especially sharply, reaching 46 mm Hg. Art., tobto. at a value that indicates the stress of carbon dioxide in the venous blood. The infusion of carbon dioxide into the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin is very important for the transfer of gases to the legs and tissues.
Fabrics contain a large amount of carbon dioxide and other acidic decomposition products that are created as a result of the metabolism of substances. Passing into the arterial blood of the tissue capillaries, the stench causes the rapid breakdown of oxyhemoglobin and the release of sourness to the tissues.
In the lungs around the world, carbon dioxide is seen in the venous blood in the alveolar cavity due to changes in place of carbon dioxide in the blood, causing hemoglobin to combine with acidity. Tim himself will ensure the conversion of venous blood to arterial blood.
Transport of carbon dioxide
There are three forms of transport of carbon dioxide:
- physical gas - 5-10%, or 2.5 ml/100 ml of blood;
- chemically binding to bicarbonates: in plasma NaHC0 3 in erythrocytes KHCO - 80-90%, then. 51 ml/100 ml blood;
- chemically binds carbamide to hemoglobin - 5-15%, or 4.5 ml/100 ml of blood.
Carbon dioxide continuously settles in the cells and diffuses into the blood of tissue capillaries. In erythrocytes, veins combine with water and create carbonic acid. This process is catalyzed (accelerated 20,000 times) by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is found in erythrocytes, but not in blood plasma. Therefore, the hydration of carbon dioxide occurs almost exclusively in erythrocytes. In the presence of carbon dioxide, carbonic anhydrase is catalyzed by the formation of carbonic acid and its splitting into carbon dioxide and water (at the capillaries of the lungs).
Some molecules of carbon dioxide are produced in red blood cells with hemoglobin, which solutes carbohemoglobin.
We assume that the stress of carbon dioxide in erythrocytes is low in the process. Therefore, new amounts of carbon dioxide diffuse into the middle of the red blood cells. The concentration of ions HC0 3 - is established during the dissociation of carbonic acid salts, and grows in erythrocytes. The erythrocyte membrane has a high permeability for anions. Therefore, part of the HCO 3 ions passes into the blood plasma. Instead of HCO 3 - ions, erythrocytes from the plasma contain CI - ions, the negative charges of which are equal to K + ions. Plasma has an increased affinity for sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 -).
The accumulation of ions in the middle of erythrocytes is accompanied by movements of the osmotic pressure. Therefore, the accumulation of erythrocytes in the capillaries of the great blood flow is growing rapidly.
To bind most of the carbon dioxide to carbon dioxide, the power of hemoglobin as an acid is of great importance. Oxyhemoglobin has a dissociation constant 70 times greater than deoxyhemoglobin. Oxyhemoglobin is a strong acid, lower acid, and deoxyhemoglobin is weak. Therefore, in arterial blood, oxyhemoglobin, which is absorbed by K+ ions from bicarbonates, is transported in the form of salt KHbO2. In tissue capillaries, KHbO 2 becomes sour and transforms into KHb. This carbonic acid, as a strong viscosity, removes K+ ions:
KHb0 2 + H 2 CO 3 = KHb + 0 2 + KNSO 3
Thus, the conversion of oxyhemoglobin into hemoglobin is accompanied by an increase in carbon dioxide in the blood. This phenomenon is ringing Haldane effect. Hemoglobin contains cations (K+) necessary for the binding of carbonic acid to the form of bicarbonates.
Also, in the erythrocytes of tissue capillaries, an additional amount of potassium bicarbonate, as well as carbohemoglobin, is established, and in the plasma, the amount of sodium bicarbonate increases. In this type, carbon dioxide is transported until death.
In the capillaries of the small stake, blood flow to carbon dioxide decreases. CO2 is released from carbohemoglobin. Oxyhemoglobin is immediately released, and its dissociation increases. Oxyhemoglobin removes potassium from bicarbonates. Carbohydric acid in erythrocytes (in the presence of carbonic anhydrase) quickly decomposes into water and carbon dioxide. HCOX ions enter the erythrocytes, and CI ions enter the blood plasma, where the potency of sodium bicarbonate changes. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the alveolar cavity. All these processes are presented schematically in Fig. 6.
Small 6. Processes that occur in erythrocytes during depuration or release of blood acidity and carbon dioxide
Dikhannya
2. Meta lectures
Analyze the mechanism of external breathing, learn the main physiological indicators of pulmonary ventilation.
Analyze the processes of gas exchange in the legs and tissues, the mechanisms of blood pressure and reflexes of the respiratory system, as well as the causes of this change with reduced and increased atmospheric pressure.
Z. Lectures. Look at the dynamics of physiological processes
Functions of the dicholic system
Tipi dikhannya
Regulation of diet.
Cars and containers
Gas exchange in the legs
Transport of gases by blood
5. Power supply for independent robots,
literature for preparation
Methodical instructions before laboratory work from normal physiology for medical students. PDU, Penza 2003 rock.
6. Power for repetition
Anatomy and histology of respiratory organs
Lecturer Associate Professor Mikulyak N.I.
Dihanna is one of the functions of the body. This is what is meant to lead to death. There is no food - there is no life. Why is it necessary to bring death to death?
As you know, life is a constant exchange of superfluous serenity. One of these substances is oxygen O 2, which is responsible for entering the body from too much fluid, and in addition carbon dioxide 2 is released from the body. Kisen is necessary for the body, because Most chemical reactions in the body involve oxidation of CO2. There is no sourness, biochemical processes are disrupted, and this disruption is absurd for life. In addition, impaired breathing leads to the accumulation of CO2 in the body, which has a detrimental effect on vital areas of the body. That. Breathing is one of the most important functions of the body. No death - not enough About 2 - disruption of oxidative biochemical reactions - death. Dihanna operates with the help of the respiratory system, then. dichotomy function of the dichotomy system. This is the power of the singing world of skin, mucous membrane.
The function of the respiratory system is closely related to the blood and the cardiovascular system. Dihal system + blood + CVS = SCOO (system of oxidation of the body).
This relationship is easily detected during pathology in the body. So, when the leg is inflamed, if the respiratory function is disrupted, and often with frequent breathing, hemodynamics increase due to the increase in the frequency of the short heart, which increases in the air, carriers of O 2. On the other hand, impairment of the cardiovascular system is permissible in case of heart defects, if the fluidity of the blood circulation changes, breathing and hemodynamics worsen.
Dihanna as a process consists of 5 stages:
1. external breathing or ventilation of the leg or exchange of air between the lungs and alveoli;
2. gas exchange (in the legs) between the alveolar airways and blood;
3. transport About 2 and 2 blood;
4. exchange of gases between blood and tissues;
5. Tkaninne dikhannya.
The physiology of breathing includes the first 4 groups of processes, the mechanism of their regulation and the peculiarities of their occurrence in different minds. Klitinne, tobto. Tissue health is determined mainly by biochemistry, which follows tissue oxidative processes when any energy-rich substances that are located in the tissue are split, releasing energy into them.
Ventilation of the leg is based on the volume of inhalation and vision, which changes periodically.
Let's look at the beginning of inspiration (the mechanism of inhalation). Inhale is a process that ensures the transition from the middle to the bottom. Inhalation begins with shortening of the respiratory muscles and muscles of the diaphragm. During a very calm inhalation in healthy people, the external intercostal and intercartilaginous tissues tend to heal. This will result in an increase in the size of the thoracic tissue in the sagittal and frontal directions. Why? In a calm state, the ribs are lowered to the bottom. When inhaling, the ribs take a horizontal position, rising up. This is why the cross section of the chest becomes larger both in the transverse and later directions. Why does the shortening of the intercostal flesh not lead to the ribs getting closer to each other, but to their elevation? This is due to the fact that the outer intercostal muscles go from rib to rib in an oblique direction: from behind to the animal, forward and down. The ribs are of a different type in their articulation with the ridge. The force that moves the intercostal flesh, which appears on the upper and lower ribs, is, however, the same. It is important that the lower rib is larger, so the force in the lower rib is larger, then. What’s easier for the meat: raise the bottom rib or lower the top one or bring them closer together? Gently lift the bottom rib. That. The rise of the ribs leads to an increase in the size of the thoracic wall in the sagital and frontal directions. In addition, the diaphragm quickly disappears. This leads to a strengthening of the diaphragm, lowering the dome, as a result of which the size of the chest increases in the vertical direction. Lower the diaphragm by 1 cm until the volume reaches 350 ml. Otje. The chest becomes larger in all 3 directions. With calm breathing, breathing in men and women proceeds as usual. In women, the volume of the chest increases due to the important shortening of intercostal ulcers. Tse so titles, chest type dikhannya chi ribs. This is the same type of gut trouble. In humans, the compression of the chest becomes more important due to the diaphragm. This is called the cerebral and diaphragmatic type of dikhannya. This is how rabbits died.
The type of food is not permanent and remains in the form of work that is ending. So, when the pressure is transferred, the movement of the diaphragm is affected by the diaphragm. With strong breathing (during buttocks), a number of additional auxiliary muscles take part in the act of inhalation: sternocleidomastoides, levator scapula, pectoralis major and minor, etc.
Otje. Inhalation begins with shortening of the respiratory muscles, which leads to increased pain in the leg. It’s easy to follow the chest again. Why? Zupinimosya at tsomu.
1. This refers to the tightness of the chest:
2. The power of legen fabric.
In order to understand this process, you need to know about the so-called Donders model: take a slope. The liquid has a humic bottom, the upper opening of the bottle is closed with a stopper, a glass tube is passed through it, and a trachea with lungs is placed on it. There is a pressure gauge mounted on the side. On the legenі in the middle, then. through the slope the tube is pressed at 1 atm. Call, then. from the dance on the surface of the legen and also the pressure = 1 atm. The two forces are equal, the legends remain at peace. As the humic bottom is pulled out, the pressure on the bottle decreases, resulting in a difference between the pressure that presses on the leg on the inner and outer sides. Through the tube there is more pressure. That’s why it’s time to come to the legion and the stench will be stretched out. At the same time, mark the trace. The pressure on the bottle is reduced to less than atmospheric.
Boyle-Marriott law p1/p2=v1/v2 or p1v1=p2v2
And now let’s move from this model to the whole organism.
The lungs are covered with a visceral layer of pleura. The inner surface of the chest is covered with the parietal layer of pleura. Between them there is a pleural space (gap). Between them there is a small amount of thinner, which will ensure the smoothing of the sheets, it is necessary to change the rubbing between them. The pleural space is hermetically sealed. A person has two pleural empties. If people insert an empty head into the pleural space, connected to a pressure gauge, we will notice that there is a pressure there that is a few millimeters below the atmospheric pressure. At stani vilnogo vidihu von = 7 mmHg. When you inhale, it rises = 9-10 mmHg. At maximum vidihu = 2-3 mmHg. With a maximum inhalation of up to 30 mm. And if you close the airways and take a breath test (Müller's evidence), it becomes 50-50 mmHg below atmospheric pressure. This pressure is called a negative pressure. Negative pressure is the difference between atmospheric pressure and pleural pressure. Why zoom negative pressure?
It is overshadowed by the powers of legen fabric.
1. stretch
2. elasticity.
If we squeeze the trachea of a dead creature, open the chest wall, we imagine that the legs will occupy the entire chest wall, then. stinks permeate the stretched body. If pressure is applied through the trachea under pressure, the legs will stretch even more. Tobto. Leather fabric with powerful stretch. This power for legen fabric is power over the larger world, but not for anything else.
As soon as you open the trachea, continue until the end. The lungs are changing over time and the lungs are changing in size. This is due to the elasticity of legen fabric.
Elasticity is the ability of the fabric to swell in volume or shape. And it is made of a large amount of elastic fibers. The layers of these fibers create elastic traction on the leg, which is what the body always has, because Legenes will always be at their stretched waist. This is connected with this. What is the chest
1. May have a greater obligation, lower legion, and more
2. taller, lighter.
The elastic traction of the leg is designed to bring the leg wear to a minimum. remove visceral from parietal. Ale because The pleural emptiness is hermetically sealed, then this emptiness is created in a space that is thinner. negative vice.
Elastic traction legen lay down:
1. due to the presence of a large number of elastic fibers in the alveoli,
2. covered with a surface tension of the alveolar wall.
What will happen to the lungs if the tightness of the pleural cleft is destroyed? The pressure on the outer and inner surfaces is equal to atmospheric pressure. If the elastic traction of the legs is lost, they are squeezed by the shell of each leg, taking minimal effort. This condition is called pneumothorax. In this case the legion subsides and the respiratory function becomes immobile. Pneumothorax can be unilateral. Pneumothorax sometimes stagnates for treatment.
That. the mechanism of inhalation consists of:
1. shortening of intercostal ulcers and diaphragmatic ulcers
2. increased size of the chest
3. Excessive obsyagu legen
4. Lower vice in the legs
5. Finding a new way of life
Vidikh – passive (calm). It occurs under the pressure of the heaviness of the chest and the pressure of the abdominal organs. Or, if we are active and forceful, if we change the procedure until the forces are overextended, we will experience a shortening of the internal intercostal oblique muscles, posterior internal dental muscles and abdominal muscles.
The musculature is strong, which ensures the ability to inhale, to hinder the great work. This robot requires a support that is both static and dynamic.
Static vice (elastic) includes
1. chest cavity that needs to be lifted
2. relies on the compression of the organs of the cerebral sac, which are pressed by the diaphragm, which descends.
3. Place the hem of the elastic support of the legging fabric until there is a static support while stretching it.
During deep breathing, the static support grows.
Dynamic support (viscous or inelastic) is divided
1. fabric support
2. revived operation
Place the fabric support:
1. rubbing between the layers of pleura
2. rubbing between the heart and legs
The damaged support that is built on the side of the windy roads that is collapsing, this support lies in:
1. Dovzhini of the Dikhal Ways
2. Their diameter
3. the nature of the wind jet
4. the fluidity of the wind.
How can we change on the eve of the great events? Maybe. The number of breathless walks constantly changes depending on how much people breathe through their noses and mouths. In the first season, the income is greater, which means that the number of expenses increases. The amount of wild paths increases with the hour of inhalation, and changes with the sight. Significantly the day of savage marches in gas masks is increasing. In order to change the support and change the work of the respiratory muscles, short-distance runners breathe through the mouth. Otherwise, constantly breathing through the mouth threatens with great dangers. First of all, colds and illnesses in the upper rural areas often occur. In other words, the constant breathing through the nose leads to a decrease in mental abilities – to the point of bewilderment. Thirdly, the ventilation of the leg is disrupted (the air stream passing through the nose disrupts the receptors of the nasal mucosa - the impulse at the respiratory center - increased breathing). Fourthly, turning off nasal breathing leads to a decrease in state potency. This occurs with nasal polyposis, when the lymphatic tissue in the nose grows.
The air-bearing supports lie within the diameter of the air-bearing tracks. The diameter of the fissures is constant in healthy people. It increases when you inhale and changes when you see, so you feel more relaxed when you see it. Chim inhale by 5-10%. The diameter of the wild paths changes among people who burn. Until old age, with severe illnesses of the organs, dihannia (with bronchial asthma, if the diameter changes sharply, especially when you see, then these patients have severe difficulties).
The winding supports depend on the nature of the flow of the wind jet. There are two types of wind flow: laminar and turbulent.
Laminar type - if all the balls collapse in parallel - the support is the least. The wind is collapsing with a wedge-like front. This type of breathing is possible with smooth walls of wind-bearing channels and with low wind fluidity, and it can only happen with calm breathing.
Turbulent type (vortex), when parts of the surface constantly mix with each other, the pressure increases sharply. This should be avoided in case of frequent breathing, in case of severe illness, if the smooth surface of the breathing paths is damaged.
The windy supports lie in the fluidity of the wind. This results in a more dynamic support. The fluidity of the wind depends on the diameter of the breathing paths and the intensity of the breathing.
Between the static and dynamic support there is a continuity, which is indicated by the frequency of breathing. With frequent breathing, the dynamic support increases, and with rare breathing, the support becomes static. Mingimal support operates at a breathing frequency of 15 times per 1 breath. And it's called epne. As the disease is rare (called bradypne, often called tachypne).
Cars and containers.
For a discussion about legen ventilation, then. about the external dikhannya vikoristuyut the importance of legal obligations and capacities. Behind the figures of these indicators, one can find indications about the current economy. It is more common to focus on the physical development of people.
Passenger cars:
1. BEFORE - breathing - the amount of air that appears and appears during quiet breathing. DO = 500 ml. (300-900)
2. ROVD - reserve inhalation service - this is the amount of air that can be inhaled after a calm breath. ROVd = 1500 ml. (1.5 – 1.8)
3. ROvid - backup service of video - this is the amount of information that can be seen after the initial video. ROVd = 1500 ml.
4. GO – excess volume – which is lost after maximum visibility. Can be determined when growing. GO = 1500 ml. (1.0 – 1.5)
5. KO - collapse volume. I lose my health after I fall down, after I see too much debt. That's why people are easy, they want to breathe in the wind once and not drown by the water. This is consistent with ship medical practice. CV = 150 ml.
Car capacities:
In addition to the legal volumes, there are 2 or a number of volumes, calculated in total:
1. OEL - legal capacity legen = 5150. OEL = DO + ROVS + ROvid + GO + KO
Plethysmography method or gas di...
2. VIT - vital capacity of life. This is how you can see after taking a maximum breath. VC = UP TO + ROV + ROVID = 3500 ml.
(3.5 - 5.0) male, (3.0 - 4.0) female.
3. IM. View - the capacity of the maximum view - the time that can be seen at the maximum view after a calm inhalation. EMVid=DO+ROvid=2000ml. (2.0-2.3)
4. EMBC – maximum inhalation capacity. EMBC = BEFORE + ROBC = 2000ml
5. FRC - functional excess capacity of the leg - in the area that is lost in the legs after a quiet day. FFU=OO+ROVid=3000ml.
Functional indicators and performance tests.
Cars and containers give the right to approximately detect the size of the respiratory apparatus. In more detail and more precisely about the state of the respiratory apparatus, one can judge the various functional indicators of the leg and giving different importance on the leg.
There are already a lot of indicators, but more often you get stuck in the onset of the attack:
1. BH – dikhannya frequency. Average 14 – 15 per 1 round, varies from 20 to 40. Whichever is rarer or more frequent, it is already destroyed.
2. GD - glibina dikhannya - u v-ha. Which is taken up by the lungs when inhaling.
3. MOD – hvilinny obsyag dikhannya – in the v-ha, how to go through legenі with normal dikhannya: MOD=BH*GD/DO/=16*500=8000ml.
The daily intake of healthy people ranges from 6 to 8 liters. MOD lasts a long time, the state and growth of the body. Therefore, when the MOD is determined, it will be equal to the required volume of DMOD.
DMOD – is indicated according to the normogram and according to empirically derived formulas:
DMOD (in humans) = 3.2 * 5 m 2 (body surface)
DMOD (for women) = 3.7 * 5 m 2 (body surface)
4. MVL - at the wind, as it goes through the legen in the 1st century. with dihanni max deep and max frequent.
(130-140 l/sw for men, 110 - 120 l/sw for women)
5. RD – the difference between international international flights and modalities
RD = MVL-MOD = 120 - 130 l
6. VC - this is the increase in VC to body weight.
VC/M = 75 ml/kg in men and 65 ml/kg in men.
7. Maximum wind speed of the rotor – MSDVVD = 3.2 m/s
MSDV view = 2.8 m/s
8. AVL is an indicator of the strength of the air. Whoever takes the fate of the gas exchange is in the middle. Some of the air does not take part in gas exchange, but part of it. It is located in the nasal cavity of the throat and bronchi. Bronchiola. These wild roads are called dead space, and it costs 150 ml. AVL = (DO-OMP) * RR = 350 * 16 = 5.6 l
MOD = 9 MOD = 9
1) BH = 30 2) BH = 15
TD = 300 ml TD = 600 ml
AVL! = 150 * 30 = 4.5 l AVL! = 450 * 15 = 6.75 l
Alveolar dihannia depends on the frequency and depth. The dead place plays a role:
1. buffer between alveolar and atmospheric air. With cutaneous inhalation, the remaining portion of the air is absorbed into the dead space, so the alveolar air changes its composition little. Until the end, I see that there is functional excess capacity in the alveoli.
When you inhale, not all of the alveolar tissue is replaced, but only 1/9 of it. (3150 + 350)
2. the role of a mechanical filter. Inhale, stick to the mucous membrane and cleanse.
3. in the air, what is seen, appears
4. The role of the temperature relay. Dikhania is protected during sudden temperature changes.
As long as you breathe in, stay in the atmospheric air. Yogo warehouse:
About 2 - 21%, 2 - 0.63%, N 2 - 79%.
The atmospheric wind, passing along the wild roads, mixes with the wind of the alveoli, which is located in the alveolar wind:
About 2 – 14%, 2 – 5.5%, N 2 – 79%.
The storage of the alveolar air is permanent.
When you see the alveolar surface, it merges with the surface of the dead space, that is O 2 - 16%, CO 2 - 4.5%, N 2 - 79%. The main purpose of leg ventilation is to ensure the strength of the alveolar air supply.
Gas exchange in the legs.
Gas is exchanged between the alveolar airways and blood is released in the alveoli. Legeneva tissue and blood are divided into an alveolar-capillary barrier, which consists of two balls of cells - a ball of endothelium and a ball of epithelium, thickness 0.5 microns. In 1 second, CO 2 and O 2 pass through the bar in 1 second, the storage of alveolar air and blood is equalized. The barrier has a high penetration of gases.
The number of alveoli is great, there are 300 - 400 million of them in one lung, the underground area = 80 - 100 m 2. Through the alveolar surface in 1 minute. 250 ml 2 enters the body and 250 ml 2 is eliminated.
Necessary for IOC – 5 l. blood (a little bit).
Partial pressure is important for gas exchange. I gas voltage.
Partial pressure is the pressure that falls on a part of the gas in the tank, if the gas is in the middle, then the pressure on the gas in the middle is called stress.
Partial pressure in the alveolar air: 760-50 = 710 mmHg.
P O2 = 710 * 14/100 = 100 mmHg.
P CO2 = 710 * 5.5 / 100 = 40 mm.
P N 2 = 575 mm Hg.
Voltage of gases in venous blood: Pro 2 – 40, CO 2 – 46
In arterial blood: Pro 2 – 100, CO 2 – 60
For fabrics Pro 2 – 0, CO 2 – 60
The diffusion of gases is due to the obvious difference between the partial pressure and tension of the gases.
Gases diffuse into a smaller vise. In the alveoli of the leg, O 2 flows into the venous blood, and CO 2 flows through the gradient at pressure equal to 6. This gradient is sufficient to remove 200 ml 2 from the body.
Penetration of the barrier is not the same for all gases. For Pro 2, use 25 ml per cycle, then through the bar per cycle. you can pass 25 * 60 = 1500 mol O 2.
Normal = 250 ml.
Gas exchange occurs due to the difference between the partial pressure of gases in the alveolar air and their tension in the venous blood. The exchange of gases is facilitated by the high penetration of the gas barrier.
The purpose of gas exchange for gases is to exchange the supply of PRO 2 to the bed and remove CO 2. Set the exchange rate to the average 250 ml 2, 200 ml 2 /x.
Transport of gases is bloody.
100 ml of arterial blood has Pro 2 = 20 ml. 2 = 52 ml.
In 100 ml of venous blood, Pro 2 = 12 ml. 2 = 58 ml.
Some of the gases in the blood are re-absorbable in a physically weakened state.
100 ml of blood is divided into 0.3 ml 2 1 ml N 2 and 2-3 ml. 2. The main part of gases comes from the knitting station.