The cat is considered a mysterious creature. She walks on her own, favorably accepts caresses and admiration for her person, considers her family as her retinue, and the house as her personal territory. The cat steps over with its fingers silently, softly and gracefully, as if sliding along the surface. Many are confused by the question of how many toes cats have.

Cat paws

Mammals have five-toed limbs. The cat is different from everyone. She does not have 20 fingers, but only 18. This is a standard that has been adopted by international felinological organizations.

The number of toes on the front and hind feet is different. How many toes does a cat have on its hind legs? Only four. On the front, as expected, five.

They are armed with sharp claws and have soft pads. Four fingers are located in one row, and the fifth, with a claw and a small wrist pad, is rudimentary, slightly set aside and does not touch the ground when walking.

Cat's legs spring up when walking and allow their owners to catch prey, climb trees, run and jump from place to a height higher than the height of the cat.

Between the pads of the forelegs, tactile hairs peep out in charming bunches, which are not lost during molting, are constantly grinded at the tips when walking, then grow back.

The extreme phalanges of the fingers are covered with curved keratinized tips - claws. The cat gradually releases them outside or draws them into the leather groove. The claws are very sensitive, since each of them is located nerve endings and blood vessels.

"Mittens" and "snowshoes"

A mutation at the genetic level leads to the formation of extra fingers - polydactyly, which was first mentioned in official documents in 1868.

This does not affect the health of felines and is manifested only in the requirements of modern exhibition standards - here it becomes important how many toes a cat has.

Additional toes can be located on different parts of the paw, and their functionality depends on this.

If the "extra" fingers are located with inside paws and are located at an angle in relation to the rest of the fingers, as in humans, these are "mittens", or "mittens".

When the extra toes are in line, they are snowshoes. Owners of "snowshoes", thanks to their special stability, do not fall into snowdrifts and calmly move through loose and deep snow.

If we talk about polydactics, then the answer to the question of how much a cat has on its paws can be quite unexpected. The Guinness Book of Records includes such outstanding representatives of the species with polydactyly as the owners of 28 fingers Jake and Fred from the province of Ontario (Canada).

Talisman for good luck

Legends say that mustachioed owners of a large number of fingers bring happiness to their owners.

Maine Coons, natives of New England, Wales and Canada are considered their ancestors. Thanks to their unique tenacious paws, they easily move on loose snow and are appreciated as excellent hunters. History has preserved the legends that polydactics at critical moments of hungry years caught fish with tenacious paws and then brought it to their owners.

For a long time they enjoyed special honor and respect from sailors, who firmly believed that many-fingered cats bring unprecedented luck. The rapid spread of polydactics in America, Nova Scotia and Norway occurred, presumably, precisely with the participation of merchant seamen, who carefully watched how many cats have fingers, and selected them for long journeys as fellow travelers. Thanks to the increased number of claws, they deftly climbed the ropes, skillfully balanced on the deck during a storm and perfectly caught ship rats - they protected the ship's food from rodents.

Unique celebrity cats

Many polydactyl cats and cats became famous for their famous owners.

Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States, owned a polydacto with the bright nickname Sleepers, who felt comfortable in the White House and even became a participant in official receptions and press conferences.

For the first time, polydactics became known thanks to Ernest Hemingway, who, regardless of how many fingers the cats have, kept two dozen representatives of the mustachioed family on his estate. The first of these was Snowball, a gift from sea captain Stanley Dexter to Hemingway. Snowball is a typical six-fingered.

In Florida, dozens of cats still live in the writer's museum today, which receive the necessary care, nutrition, gentle care in memory of the famous author "Farewell to Arms" and "The Old Man and the Sea". Some of these felines are polydactic. Perhaps these are the descendants of Snowball. This kingdom of cats is considered a national treasure.

How to care for cat paws

Regardless of how many toes cats have, each of the pet's pets needs to be taken care of. First of all, we are talking about claws.

Under natural selection, claws are needed by the feline family to catch prey, hold food, climb trees, and defend against enemies. In the process of work, the claws are grinded and grow back.

When kept at home, the functional use of the claws is sharply reduced, the natural grinding is difficult. This complicates the life of the animal, whose claws are constantly entangled in the owner's clothes, get stuck in the carpet: they break off, the cat suffers. In order to avoid this, claws should be cut, following simple rules:

• The procedure must be carried out carefully so as not to damage the living skin, nerve endings and capillaries that are in the claw.
• For cutting, you should use special scissors - secateurs.
• After cutting, it is advisable to file the edge of the claw with a nail file to prevent delamination of the nail plate.
• The clipping procedure should be done regularly.
• Cat's toes require a check every 2 weeks.

Without living next to animals, human life would be boring and uninteresting. So, the most common pets in our homeland are cats. And all because these are unpretentious animals that do not require special care and a lot of human attention. However, you cannot know everything about your pet. That is why now I want to tell you how many fingers cats have.

Normal indicators

Initially, it should be noted that animals, as well as humans, can have various kinds of deviations. However, how many toes do cats have? So, the answer is unambiguous: four, located next to each other, and the fifth, slightly located at a distance and protruding (however, as in people). However, this only works in the case of the forelegs.

How many toes does a cat have on its hind legs? Here their number will be somewhat different. So, this animal has four fingers on each paw.

Summing up a small summary, I would like to note that normally, in total, each cat should have 18 fingers on all four paws, and not 20 (as a person has).

Features of walking cats

Understanding how many fingers cats have, it should be noted that only four of them touch the surface on which the animal steps. And this is regardless of what kind of legs we are talking about - front or hind legs.

It should also be noted that on each cat's toe there is a marigold, which performs various functions: this is helping with climbing trees, and picking up food if necessary, and a guard function - protecting from the enemy in case of his attack. However, if the cat is completely domestic and does not visit the street, she often does not need marigolds at all. That is why they can be safely cut with the help of special cat scissors. This must be done carefully so as not to catch the live skin. Also, do not be afraid if the cat sometimes loses its nails. In fact, the upper layer of the claw, the so-called cover, is removed from the cat, and under it there is already a new, sharp and completely grown marigold.

It is important to note that any cat will sharpen its claws. If the animal visits the street, the nearest tree will be selected as a favorite place. If the cat is completely domesticated, then any furniture can suffer, especially chairs and sofas, where the tree is upholstered with fabric. In this case, your pet needs to purchase a scratching post, which will save property from damage.

Developmental anomalies

Understanding how many toes cats have, you also need to talk about such a problem as polydactyly. What it is, you can understand after the translation: from the Greek language "poly" is a lot, "dactylos" is a finger. That is why it is possible to draw a simple conclusion that we will talk about such an anomaly, when the pet has more toes than usual.

Ship cats

Initially, it is important to note that humanity knew about this problem for a very long time. However, the first record of polydactyly did not appear until 1868. At the same time, polydacty (that is, animals with a large number of fingers on their paws) for some reason in many countries were considered escorts of navigators or were called ship cats. Why is that? It's simple.

People believed that with such a special structure of the paws, the animal would be able to better cling to the deck during storms and other problems that often arise for those who are at sea. Surprisingly, even if most of the ship's crew disappeared without a trace, such cats remained safe and sound. In addition, the seafarers endowed these animals with other additional functions: it was believed that polydactics bring good luck if they are on the ship.

We figured out how many fingers a cat has in the norm - 18 on all four paws. And also considered such an anomaly as polydactyly. There is a lot of information about such special favorites, which can be found on various pages of history:

1. In the Middle Ages in the northeastern United States, polydactyly was observed in many cats. However, all animals with this trait on their paws were exterminated during the witch-hunting campaign.
2. The famous writer had about 50 cats with a similar anomaly. It should be noted that such animals are also called "cats in mittens".
3. The President of the United States T. Roosevelt had a cat called Slipper, which had more toes on its paws than it should have. This is the first polydactic pet to live in the White House.
4. If we talk about such a breed of cats as Maine Coon, then about 40% of them are polydactic. According to legend, their paws are such that it is better to fish and run in the snow. Today, this feature of the Mainecoon was artificially bred.
5. The maximum number of toes in a polydactic cat is 32 on all four paws. This feature was noted in 1974.
6. Understanding how many fingers a cat has in normal conditions and in case of deviations, it should be noted that most often fluffy pets have one extra finger on their front legs. So, they have two separate fingers, which cats do not step on when walking.
7. The polydactyly gene does not transmit the number of extra fingers. It simply denotes this feature.

If you know how many fingers a cat has normally, polydact photos will not seem like something terrible. These cats also remain cute. And they are also special.

Objectives:

1. Summarize, repeat and test the knowledge gained in biology lessons.
2. Expand your understanding of the animal kingdom.

Preliminary preparation: Prepare cards with numbers from 1 to 6 for each player. Cut tokens.

Game progress: pictures of animals are displayed on the screen in each round . The players are asked questions, they choose the correct answer from the proposed photos and raise the card with the correct answer. The answers are checked immediately. The players are given tokens, or the points are calculated by the jury. The child with the most tokens is the winner. You can take 6 players and play elimination in each round, whoever has fewer correct answers is eliminated.

Round 1 "Animals of different continents" (slide 2)

On the presentation screen, animals: gorilla, mouse, hyena, anteater, lemur, seal. (Slide 3)

1. This animal can be found on all continents, except perhaps Antarctica. (Mouse)

2. This animal has chosen a very interesting way of getting water for itself. First, it lowers its paw into the water, waits for the wool to become saturated with water, and then sucks the water out of the wool. (Gorilla)

3. This animal is an inhabitant of South America, sleeps 15 hours a day, has no teeth. (Ant-eater)

4. This animal is found only on the island of Madagascar, not far from Africa. (Lemur)

5. The animal is a scavenger. (Hyena)

6. These animals live in our region and are listed in the Red Book of the Arkhangelsk region. (Seal)

7. This animal is a close relative of man. (Gorilla)

8. The teeth of this animal grow throughout its life. (Mouse)

2nd round "Cold-blooded animals" (slide 4)

On the presentation screen, animals: crocodile, frog - bull, anaconda, toad - midwife, cobra, viper. (Slide 5)

1. This animal makes very loud sounds. (Bull frog)

2. An animal that is a relative of dinosaurs. (Crocodile)

4. This snake can be found in our area. (Viper)

5. From the poison of this animal, a person dies in 15 minutes, and an elephant - 3 hours. (Cobra)

6. The male of this animal takes care of his offspring. The animal is poisonous. (Toad)

7. From the skin of this animal, boots are sewn for men, and handbags for women. (Crocodile)

8. The eggs of this animal are covered with calcareous scales. (Crocodile)

3 round "Feline" (slide 6)

On the screen: jaguar, snow leopard, ocelot, tiger, serval, leopard. (Slide 7)

1. This animal is called the snow leopard (Irbis)

2. This is the only cat that does not growl (Jaguar)

3. The most predatory cat in the world. (Tiger)

4. This is the name of the car brand. (Jaguar)

5. Can grab a flying bird at a height of 3 meters from the ground, African predator. (Serval)

6. The smallest of these cats (Ocelot)

7. Fashionistas often use faux fur to match the color of this cat. (Leopard)

8. 1998 was the year of this animal. (Tiger)

Round 4 "Extinct animals" (slide 8)

On the screen: Stegosaurus, lizard, dodo, marsupial wolf, mammoth. (Slide 9)

1. Among these animals, there is one that still lives on the earth. (Lizard)
2. This animal carried its young in a special leathery bag located on the belly. (Wolf)
3. This animal is called a dodo. (Dodo)
4. These animals spend most of the day in deep burrows. (Lizard)
5. This animal once lived in our region. (Mammoth)
6. Many feared this animal, it could fend for itself. (Stegosaurus)
7. This animal is an extinct reptile. (Stegosaurus)
8. The last representative of this animal was met in 1940. (Wolf)

5 round "Birds" (slide 10)

On the screen: swift, owl, turkey, hummingbird, loon, mockingbird. (Slide 11)

2. This bird is an inhabitant of the north, a nocturnal predator. (Owl)

3. This bird does not fly. (Turkey)

4. An ancient legend says that a flock of these birds, echoing in flight, accompanies the souls of the dead. And the jackets on her down are the warmest. (Loon)

5. This bird can imitate the human voice. (Mockingbird)

6. This bird feeds on the nectar of flowers. (Hummingbird)

7. This bird never lands on the ground, otherwise it will not take off. (Swift)

8. What bird has been considered a symbol of wisdom and knowledge since ancient times (Owl)

6 round "Arthropods" (slide 12)

On the screen: locusts, ladybugs, praying mantis, spider - wolf, bee, mosquito. (Slide 13)

1. The main food of this insect is aphids, and during its life it eats thousands of insects, thereby benefiting humans. (Ladybug)

2. This heat-loving insect constantly eats, its whole life passes in anticipation of the next victim. (Mantis)

3. Social insects living in families. (Bee)

4. Females suck blood of mammals, and males - sap of plants. (Mosquito)

5. This insect causes great harm to agriculture. They were depicted on frescoes in ancient Egypt 3000 years ago. (Locust)

6. This animal is distinguished by special care for the offspring, females bear cubs on their belly, and sometimes there are so many cubs that they cover the whole body of the mother, leaving only her eyes open. (Spider)

7. This animal is a good source of protein, which is why many African tribes use it for food. (Locust)

8. There is a “basket” on the hind legs of this animal. (Bee)

References: Questions and photographs taken from the Wildlife Encyclopedia by Reader Dyges.

The vast majority of cats have only 18 fingers - five on each front leg and four on each hind leg. In this case, the fifth toes on the front paws are considered rudimentary. They are located higher than the rest, so they serve the cat only in order to better climb vertical surfaces.

Cat's sixth toe

Some cats have a genetic mutation that can cause them to have six or more fingers on one paw. As recorded in the Guinness Book of Records (English), since 2002, the record holder among multi-fingered cats is a Canadian cat named "Jake", which has 28 toes (7 on each paw). Usually, if there are few "extra" toes, then they are on the front legs and very rarely on the hind legs.

Sometime about 40% of all maine coon were born multi-toed, since their habitat was on farms in the northeastern part of America, where a lot of snow fell in winter, on which it was more convenient to walk on wide paws with an increased number of toes. Currently, poly-toing is found in animals of all breeds with approximately the same frequency. However, there are regionswhere more such cats are born. These are, first of all, the west coast of North America, as well as England and Wales. These countries could only be reached by ships that always swam with cats, catching the ubiquitous mice that spoiled food supplies. Sailors regarded the multi-fingered little predators as talismans and appreciated that on board a wooden ship they could do their job better than their "standard" brethren.

Extra fingers do not cause any inconvenience to animals and do not affect health. However, there is rare diseasecalled "radial hypoplasia". It is manifested by the fact that the radius bones of the forepaws of the cat do not develop, because of which it cannot walk. One of the symptoms is the presence of extra fingers.

This cat has a distinct sixth toe.

Exploring the cat

Cat structure

Cat skeleton

The anatomical structure of the spinal cord. 1. In dogs and cats, the spinal cord is located in the vertebral canal from CI to the cranial edge of dogs L VII, in cats to SIII. Forming the conus medullaris 2. The cervical section of the eight segments C1-C8 (the first root comes out of the lateral foramen of the first vertebra) does not correspond to the number of vertebrae. 3. Thoracic region 13 segments 4. Lumbar region 7 segments 5. Sacral segment 3 6. Caudal segment in dogs 5 segments in cats 7-8 segments. enlarge photo a - conus medullaris b - terminal thread c - subarachnoid space of the spinal cord d - dura mater e - thin terminal filament of the dura mater f - cavum epidurale epidural cavity. Spinal cord blood supply Enlarge drawing Spinal cord blood supply to the chest and lower back Enlarge drawing Enlarge drawing

Spinal cord blood supply enlarge drawing enlarge drawing Meninges enlarge drawing 1 Hard shell 2 Arachnoid 3 Soft shell. Ventrally, the arachnoid membrane adjoins the soft membrane much closer than dorsally (which is important to consider when performing myelography). The subarachnoid space of the spinal cord runs caudally in dogs up to SI - 17.5% in 29% around SI, 43% in SII and 10.5% in SIII. In small breed dogs and under one year of age, the subarachnoid space extends more caudally than in large breed and older dogs (important for the interpretation of myelography).

The cat is the perfection of nature. Cats have no equal in the variety of their physical capabilities. They master such techniques as jumping, climbing, balancing, crawling and sprinting, acrobatics, the ability to contract, react with lightning speed and move slowly. The excellent relationship between a highly developed nervous system and efficient muscles makes the cat an excellent hunter. Let's take a closer look at the body of a cat. The "ordinary" familiar domestic cat will serve as the initial object for us. Skeleton The skeleton forms the skeleton of the feline body. It consists of 240 separate bones and, in essence, the same as in all vertebrates: at one end of the spine sits the skull, and the other end passes into the tail (in a cat, it consists of 26 vertebrae). Two limbs are attached to the spine in the shoulder and pelvis. Most bones are connected to each other by cartilage or joints. More than 500 muscles, large and small, are designed to allow the cat's body to perform any movement. A highly developed cat brain reacts with lightning speed. He analyzes, compares, calculates and evaluates the information received in order to immediately send an order to the muscles in a rational and coordinated way to prepare or relax. Cats walk on tiptoe. This means that they walk on their toes, and not like us - the whole foot. On the hind legs, a "knee" heel is clearly visible. The real knee is located at the height of the lower abdomen. The cat has five fingers on the front paw, and the fifth toe is so shortened that it does not touch the floor when walking. The hind paw rests on four fingers, here thumb absent. Thick soles evenly distribute the cat's body weight over the entire foot. That is why cats walk so silently. When pulling or loosening the vein, the cat can immediately release its claws and put them in leather bags between the toes. Both collarbones, which in us humans and most mammals connect the shoulder blades to the sternum, are so small in cats that they have turned into small bones that do not perform any function. This means that the front legs do not have a strong bone connection with the skeleton of the trunk and are supported only by strong muscles and tendons. Therefore, the cat manages to jump from a great height and land as if on springs.

There are 244 bones in a cat's skeleton - 40 more than in a human. Most complete bones make up the spine and tail. 1. The structure of the body of a cat Note - Flank refers to the lateral surface of the cat's body, including the chest and abdomen. -The feet of the forelegs include the portions from the wrist to the ground, and the hind feet from the hock to the ground. -The ventral surface is the underside of any part of a cat's body. -The dorsal surface is the upper side of any part of the cat's body. -Position - the term used to describe a lying cat: dorsal position - lying on the back; sternal position - lying on the chest; lateral position - lying on the side. muscles, Statues of the cat:

1. Forehead
2. Head
3. Stop (transition from forehead to nose)
4. Ear
5. Vibrissae (mustache)
6. Shoulder blades
7. Case
8. Back
9. Thigh
10. Base of the tail
11. Tail
12. Hind limbs
13. Heel
14. Hind legs (4 claws)
15. Belly
16. Muzzle
17. Paw pads
18. Front legs (5 claws each)
19. Front limbs
20. Leverage
21. Chest, rib cage
22. Chin
23. Nasal mirror
24. "Whisker break" - the transition between the muzzle and cheek
25. Mustache pads
26. Eye
27. Cheek

Feet
Lameness is often associated with foot injuries:
A splinter in the ball of the foot.
Broken claw.
A cut.
In case of lameness, you should immediately check the foot of the affected limb,
especially if the animal drags a limb.

2. Skeleton The skeleton is made up of bones connected by ligaments, muscles, and tendons. The functions of the skeleton are to support and protect the internal organs, as well as the movement of the body thanks to the muscles, which are connected to the bones through tendons.

3. The main bones of the skeleton Note Long bones (humerus, radius, ulna, femur and tibia) are most prone to fractures, especially in car accidents. In adult animals, bones usually break into two or more separate pieces. In young animals, they usually bend and split. The forelimbs are not attached to the skeleton, they are held only by muscles. Unlike dogs, cats have a collarbone.

Floating "clavicle The clavicle in a cat is thin and not attached to the shoulder joint, as in humans. It sits freely within the muscle and allows the shoulders to move with very little restrictions, so the animal can squeeze into a narrow hole and easily walk along the thin ledge. Watch how your pet and kapoversonki hunt, to this do her big wild relatives (in TV shows). When felines sneak up on their prey, their shoulder blades go up and down, while their head and back remain nearly level. Unlike the shoulder blades of a person, located at the back of the chest, the shoulder blades of our predator move back and forth in sync with the limbs, even when running. In a dog, the same thing happens, but in flexibility it is inferior to a cat, which can also rotate its wrists, which means that it can climb, grab, strike hard and, of course, wash.

Long bone structure

Broken bones are connected with staples, placing them in the medullary cavity, or with metal plates, imposing them on the bone itself.

Spine structure More than 33 vertebrae of various shapes form a long, flexible arch from neck to tail. Typically, 7 vertebrae form the neck, 13 thoracic vertebrae connect to the ribs. Seven lumbar vertebrae make up the lower back, three sacral vertebrae are attached to the pelvic and femur bones, and several vertebrae merge into the tail. The caudal vertebrae play an important role in the coordination of movements. Their number can vary - from 19 in the Isle of Man cat to 28 in most other breeds. The vertebrae are rounded, so they can rotate easily and smoothly. Even the muscles and ligaments are so attached to its bones that they become more mobile than in other animals.

Comment
The spinal cord lies within the spinal canal and is thus protected by bone.
The vertebrae are separated by cartilaginous discs, which protect them from injury and make the spine more flexible. The centers of the discs can shift and press on the spinal cord, causing pain and paralysis.
The vertebrae are connected to each other by ligaments and muscles associated with the processes of the vertebrae. Muscle contractions cause the spine to bend vertically and from side to side.
Skull structure
The lower jaw is suspended from the skull and consists of vertical and horizontal parts that break very easily in road accidents. As a result of injury, the jaw can be displaced, but this is relatively rare. Basically, with injuries, the right and left horizontal parts of the lower jaw are separated at the level of the mouth. In some cases, the bones of the upper jaw that did not fuse from birth form a split palate, such a kitten cannot suck, because it is not able to create a vacuum in the mouth. Therefore, at birth, all kittens should be checked for congenital anomalies.
The bony plates that form the cranium are fused together in the middle of the forehead. In kittens born with hydrocephalus, the bony plates are not fused in the fontanel area.

The feline skull has two characteristic features: huge eye sockets and short, powerful jaws with sharp teeth. Large eyes are vital for successful hunting in low light - at dusk or dawn, and powerful jaws are the main attributes of a predator.
The animal has 16 teeth in the upper jaw and 14 in the lower - this is less than any other predator, but quite enough. Like humans, a cat's first teeth erupt after birth. Infant, or milk, teeth are replaced by molars at the age of 4 to 6 months.

Cat eyes

Very sharp eye

Eyes in cats come in a variety of shades: "pirate" yellows and mysterious greens, brooding blues and even sly orange. However, the variety of colors eye does not reflect in any way on the surprising sharpness feline vision... AND cats they see perfectly not only during the day, but also at dusk.

The ability to see well in semi-darkness is explained by increased photosensitivity cat eyes... It is 7 times higher than that of humans.

How do cats' eyes work? Together with the eyelids, the iris controls the light that is distributed in eye... In bright light, the pupils contract, and in the dark they dilate so that in eyes as much light as possible entered. That is why cat eyes and appear round.

Pupils cats also narrow if the distance to the object in question is small. If the object of observation is at a great distance, the size of the pupils practically does not change.

Pupils in cats can reach a centimeter in diameter.

Have domestic cats the pupil resembles an ellipse in shape, while in large felines it is round in shape.

And one more thing: at cats The biggest eyes relative to body size among all pets.

Cat eyes: darkness is not a hindrance

In the dusk cat really sees very well. There are several reasons for this.

First, in the retina cat eyes there are more nerve endings called rods than humans. So in humans, the ratio of rods to cones (the second type of nerve endings) is 4 to 1, while in cats it is 25 to 1. Rods react to weak light, although they are not able to reproduce harsh images. However, it is this type of nerve endings that is responsible for twilight vision.

Second, behind the retina cat eyes there is a region called the tapetum lucidum. Light, passing through rods and cones, is reflected from the tapetum, returns back and again irritates the nerve endings. Thus, the nerve endings (rods and cones) in the cat's eye are irritated twice and it is due to this that the visibility of objects in the twilight improves. This also explains the dislike cats to bright lighting.

Interestingly, the same area is the tapetum lucidum [? ] - forces cat's eyes "burn" in the dark as light reflects off its greenish-yellow surface. Curiously, color change cat eyes in flash photography, it is also due to the tapetum lucidum.

Surely at night cat orientates better than a person, however, in absolute darkness, she also sees nothing like he does. The fact is that if there is no light at all, the nerve endings of the retina are not irritated. But it is from the retina that nerve impulses are transmitted along the fibers of the optic nerve to the brain.

And finally, the ability to dilate the pupils in twilight light is another explanation for the excellent night cat vision... This ability of the pupil allows more light to enter eye and irritate nerve endings (rods and cones).

Cat's eye appearance

And this is a cat's eye. Notice how huge the cornea, the conjunctiva is not visible at all! A cat, a nocturnal animal, its eye among all domestic animals is maximally adapted for good vision in the dark, therefore, such a large cornea (up to 16 mm in diameter !!!) is needed so that the maximum possible amount of light penetrates the eye. Note the convoluted vessels in the iris - it is extremely well supplied with blood. Instead of cilia, fine hairs growing along the edge of the upper eyelid protect the eye by trapping dust and other hard particles. Can you imagine what bald cats (sphinxes and others) ??! they have no hair at all. Therefore, in order to somehow protect the eye, hairless cats always have more tears and mucous secretions.

The nuances of feline vision

However, with seeming perfection vision of cats has its own nuances. In bright light, your pet is less capable of seeing detail than you. And in general, she does not like strong lighting, especially when she is not feeling well, caring for kittens or doing her toilet.

It is easier for your pet to find close objects with the help of smell, and not vision... For example, food lying directly under the nose, cat will search by smell.

Contrary to popular belief, objects in the distance cat sees not very clearly. Optimal for cat eyesis a distance of 2-6 meters. And this is not surprising, because hunting, cat best of all should distinguish exactly those objects to which it can jump.

Fixed objects cats they don't see too well either.

Cat eyes can distinguish colors

It used to be thought that cat distinguishes only 6 basic and 25 shades of gray. Now it turned out that the methodology for determining this was wrong. A number of new studies have shown that in the retina cat eyesthere are a number of conical nerve endings that provide a certain degree of color vision.

3D image

An image that cat sees both eyesare actually the same thing. This is because cat eyeslocated relatively close to each other. For example, herbivores, which eyes are on opposite sides of the head, they see two different images. This allows them to have a larger viewing angle and in case of an attack by a predator, they can replace it in time.

In the brain cats both images are superimposed on one another, and the picture becomes three-dimensional. This effect is called binocular vision.

Interestingly, some siamese cats there are problems with superimposing images on top of each other, which is associated with incorrect transmission of nerve impulses from eyes to the brain. Such cats mowing slightly trying to correct the defect vision.

Everyone's angle of view cat eyes one can only envy: it is about 205 degrees (in humans, only 180 degrees).

Teeth

An adult cat has 30 teeth In kittens, on the 14th day of age, milk teeth begin to erupt, and among them there are no molars. At the age of 4 to 6 months, milk teeth fall out and are replaced with permanent ones. If a baby tooth does not fall out in time and makes it difficult for a permanent tooth to grow, then it should be removed by a veterinarian. Cat teeth are adapted to tear and bite prey, rather than chewing, so food particles rarely get stuck between the teeth and tooth damage is relatively rare. Tooth structure

Tartar forms on the teeth of cats, especially with the constant use of solid foods. The veterinarian can easily remove it. This procedure should not be postponed, because stones can lead to gingivitis, gum inflammation, associated bad breath, and premature tooth loss.

Stones form on the border of the teeth and gums, an infection is usually introduced into this place, all this leads to inflammation of the gums.

The very last premolar in the upper jaw is much larger than the other teeth. It is called the wolf's tooth. It has multiple roots and is difficult to remove.

Joints

In a joint, one bone connects to another bone. Simple joints allow bones to move in only one plane, while spherical and polyaxial joints, such as the hip, allow bones to move in a circle. The ends of the bones that make up the joint are covered with smooth cartilage to reduce friction, and the joint itself is lubricated with a viscous fluid called synovial fluid.

The bones are held together by ligaments, which are damaged and stretched when the bones are displaced beyond the prescribed limit. In case of ruptures and severe sprains of the ligaments, the bones are separated from each other and the joint dislocates. In cats, dislocations of the knee and hip joints are especially susceptible.

In arthritis, the articular cartilage becomes inflamed and movement in the joint causes pain. Tendons connect the top of the kneecap to the muscles that flex the knee. The lower part of the knee cap is connected by ligaments to the tibia. The knee cap sits in the groove of the femur and moves up and down as the limb is flexed and extended.

As a result of injury, the knee cap can move to the side. It is often seen in animals with a flat groove of the femur from birth. Within the joint are two cartilages that protect the joint from injury and allow the bones in the joint to move without friction. There are two cruciate ligaments inside the knee joint. When damaged, movement becomes difficult and painful. The hip joint is a typical ball and polyaxial joint. Although ligaments connect the head of the femur and the acetabulum, dislocation of the hip joint is common in road accidents.

Touch. Cat's whiskers - vibrissae

Contrary to popular belief, in complete darkness cat does not see, but is guided by hearing and touch... It is the perfectly developed sense of touch that makes the furry predator so confident at night, even in absolute silence.

Touch helps cat in near orientation, with direct contacts (distant orientation is provided by hearing, sight or smell). Thanks to the superbly developed sense of touch, your pet easily chooses the most comfortable place to sleep and easily navigates the terrain at any time of the day.

To the organs of touch cats include large, protruding above the surface of the coat, sensitive hairs - vibrissae [ ? ].

Vibrissae - it's not even hair as such, but receptors that have changed in the process of evolution. The longest and most sensitive of them are located above the upper lip (on both sides in four rows). Much shorter than the mustache, located on the chin, cheeks and above the eyes. There are vibrissae on the tail and on the ankles - they help cat hunt for mobile prey. And also between the pads on the feet.

Unlike ordinary hairs, which have a heat-insulating function, vibrissae perform a tactile function. They perceive the smallest changes in the environment, including changes in atmospheric pressure.

Air currents are reflected from nearby objects and are captured vibrissae... This property allows cat, regardless of vision, determine the location of objects and dodge obstacles without touching them even in complete darkness!

To "get acquainted" with a new subject cat approaches him with forward mustache... Spreading wide vibrissae, it determines the size of the hole through which it is going to crawl - perhaps the ends of the splayed mustache correspond to the width of the body cats and let her know if the whole body will follow her head.

Wiggle mustache your pet determines the speed and direction of the wind in order to adjust the position of the body and the force of the jump in accordance with the information received.

When cat hunts her mustache elongated, because with their help it captures any rustle. And, holding the caught prey in her teeth and not being able to see it, she with the help mustache controls the behavior of the victim, who at this time is out of sight.

Vibrissae not only give your pet this or that information about the world around them, but are also an indicator of her mood. If cat mustache forward-looking, this often means curiosity or friendliness. Aggressive cat presses his mustache to his muzzle.

As already mentioned, tactile receptors in cats are not only on the face. Vibrissae scattered throughout the body. If you look at the skin of the cat, you will see individual hairs sticking out of the flat surface of the fur. These hairs are softer and not as sensitive as mustachebut they also help cat determine where the body is and how it is touched. So cateasily identifies dangerous or, conversely, pleasant contacts for her. It is not for nothing that your pet likes to be stroked on the coat - after all, in fact, your hand glides on vibrissa... And I don't like it when you stroke it against the grain - such stroking creates an uncomfortable feeling caused by electrostatic discharge. Also everyone knows how reverent cat refers to its tail and reacts very nervously to touching it.

Now a few words about how vibrissae "work".

Base vibriss is located in the surface layer of the skin. Vibrissaewell supplied with blood - the root of the sensitive tendril is located in a blood bubble called the sinus or blood lacuna. TO vibrissa branches of the facial nerve fit. The slightest fluctuations in the environment will not go unnoticed for cats - even the lightest touch to vibrissa is transmitted to the root, where the surrounding nerve endings instantly send information to the brain.

Cat whiskers even participate in the formation of sensory areas of the brain, in which each vibrissa has its own representation as a sense organ.

The ability to move vibrissae got thanks to the contraction of the striated muscles. Remember how funny cat can wiggle its "eyebrows" or antennae on the muzzle. The rest of the wool is crushed by smooth muscle cells.

Erased vibrissae are replaced one at a time as needed, regardless of the overall shedding.

Vibrissae were developed in the ancestors of mammals, and it can be assumed that they are more ancient formation than hair. What vibrissae very important for cats, confirms the following fact: the first hairs that develop in future kittens in the womb are precisely mustache.

If cat mustache, she will not be able to navigate not only in the dark, but even in the light - such experiments can lead to the death of a cat. So shame on those owners who, to "improve" appearance cut off or pull out twisted vibrissae.

True, there is a breed in the world hairless cats - sphinxes. They have vibrissae can be short and curled or absent altogether, and interestingly, the absence mustache does not affect the behavior of such cats and their hunting skills. Another riddle that was asked to us cat.

Skin at cats is also very sensitive. They are able to feel with their paw pads the structure of the covering they step on. Cats they love warm and soft fabric, and often refuse to sit with someone who is dressed in cold or in clothes made of coarse woven fabric. Sensitive to external stimuli, cats shaking their paws, stepping on water or mud.

Leather The skin, like a well-cut sweater, adheres to the cat's body. She is very mobile and mobile. This property of the skin renders an invaluable service in "hand-to-hand" (paw, dental) showdowns with a rival or with resisting prey. The skin is covered with a dense network of small muscles, blood vessels and nerve fibers. Numerous sensitive cells react to every touch, heat or cold. In addition, the skin is covered with a thick layer of hair. The skin for the cat is very important. It protects it from cold, sunburn, skin damage. Tiny muscles located at the roots of the hair can lift the hair, it is said, on end. The body of the cat in this case seems large and strong. The cat uses this effect in case of aggression or fear. Sebaceous glands are located in the skin, which secrete a fatty liquid, which the cat, when licking, rubs into the fur, making it silky. At the same time, the skin and wool are so impregnated that even with heavy rain, the cat will never get wet to the skin. In addition, the secretions of the sebaceous glands contain a little cholesterol, which, under the influence of sunlight, turns into vitamin D. With its daily toilet, the cat licks off this vitamin necessary for the body. Teeth The animal's jaw always reflects the way it feeds. Predators such as the cat are equipped with dagger-like angled teeth, otherwise called catching teeth, with which they can grasp resisting prey, hold it tightly and kill it. The molars, sharp and serrated, are used for butchering meat. A highly specialized tool for this is primarily the so-called biting teeth. They mean the last tooth of the upper jaw on each side and the first molar of the lower jaw also on each side (this is the only one for a cat). The crowns of both teeth seize the prey from below and from above, like a knife sharpened with a triangle. In this case, pieces of meat are cut like scissors, and bones are broken. Six incisor teeth are almost never used for eating. A cat can only cut off the remains of meat from a thick bone with them. But when caring for skin and fur - they are simply necessary. Surprisingly dexterously, the cat picks fleas out of its skin with them.

Muscle consist of fibers that contract under the influence of nerve impulses. Some (for example, those that make up the stomach wall) are flat and relatively thin, others are cylindrical and thicken when contracted (for example, the biceps brachii, which flexes the elbow, or the quadriceps femoris, which is attached to the femur and extends the pelvic limb).

The ends of the muscles are attached to the bone by tendons, contraction and relaxation of the muscles cause the bones in the joints to move, causing them to bend, unbend, and turn in and out.
Basically, each muscle has a pair - another muscle that performs
opposite functions, thus precise movements are achieved.
In addition to locomotor (motor) functions, muscles are used to generate heat. Heat is generated when the muscles tremble.
Pectoral muscles, contracting and relaxing, provide the breathing process.
Abdominal the muscles help the cat to defecate and give birth, as well as flex the spine when running.
Shoulder muscles of the pectoral limbs are attached to the body.
Pulling the muscles too tight can cause them to stretch.

Myositis is a term that describes muscle inflammation and is often accompanied by severe pain.

Leather - a complex multifunctional organ, designed to perform, first of all, a protective function - it serves as an obstacle for all kinds of harmful and traumatic factors. In addition, physiologically active substances produced by the skin prevent the penetration of pathogenic microbes into the body through it.
The skin is also involved in thermoregulation, the synthesis of certain vitamins, and in many other vital processes. An important function of the skin is the removal of toxic products formed in the process of metabolism and the life of normal microflora. So, in particular, in violation of the antitoxic activity of the liver and the excretory function of the kidneys, the ability to remove toxic products by the skin increases many times.
The skin also serves as a transmitter of information about the object of contact and about the ambient temperature.

The skin is made up of three layers. Surface layer - epidermis, consisting of stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium. This layer is made up of dense, flat cells that form in the lower layers and fall off to rise to the surface of the skin. There are no blood vessels in this layer.
The epidermis is thicker and more elastic in the area of \u200b\u200bthe nose and pads, and thinner, susceptible to damage in the groin and axillary areas.
In some places, the epidermis goes deeper, where hair follicles form from it, from which single hair grows. When hair growth stops, it falls out, and another usually begins to grow in its place. In cats, most of the hair is grouped together and grows from a single follicle. One hair is usually thicker and longer than the others, it is called the cover hair. The rest of the coat is formed from smaller tuft hairs. The size of these tufts depends on the breed of the cat. The sebaceous glands open into the hair follicles, where they release a viscous fluid that lubricates the skin and makes it elastic.

The skin itself is located under the epidermis - dermis. Its superficial layer, adjacent to the epidermis, is called the papillary layer, and the deeper layer is called reticular. The reticular layer contains lymphatic vessels and hair follicles with sebaceous glands. Sebaceous glands produce sebum, which lubricates the hair and makes it water-repellent. Hair follicles form three types of hair: primary (guard) hair, secondary hair (undercoat), and vibrissae (whiskers, bows, eyebrows and hair on the back of the forelegs). The dermis contains small muscle fibers that contract and stretch to reshape the skin and raise or lower hair. This is especially evident in moments of fright or rage.
The blood vessels nourish the lower layers of cells in the epidermis and the connective tissue that supports the hair follicles. The dermis contains nerve endings that are sensitive to pain and touch.

Sweat glands in the skin of cats, except for special glands between the toes on the pads of the paws, which secrete a secret in the heat, as well as when the cat is frightened or in a state of extreme excitement (while the cat leaves wet marks on a dry surface). In cats, the body is cooled through the evaporation of saliva from the tongue.

In most cases, skin diseases are caused by several reasons, but most of these diseases reflect a violation of the activity of internal organs. The most common reason skin diseases are digestive disorders. The main subjective symptom is pronounced prurite, accompanied by combing.

Modified skin structures
The mammary glands are modified cutaneous glands for milk production.
The anal glands are a modification of the skin where it connects to the digestive tract. At the anus are glands that produce a special secret of varying consistency. Sometimes the openings of these glands become blocked and the glands become painful.
A claw grows from a claw ridge that surrounds the junction of the base of the claw and skin, over the dermis of the phalanx.

Ears
A cat's ear has four parts:
1.The auricle.
2. The external auditory canal.
3. Middle ear.
4.Inner ear.

1. The auricle of the cat, thanks to the flat cartilage covered with skin, stands upright. The outer ear is the most visible and well-known part to everyone, because it constantly catches our eyes and the cat often uses it, at least the shell, which we simply call the ear. More than a dozen muscles control the movements of the auricle, so it can change its shape, and most importantly, its position relative to the head: bend, nestle, rotate almost 180. " which ends in a dead end tightened with the thinnest eardrum. middle ear.

2. The external auditory canal consists of a cartilaginous tube covered with a modified skin (sheath) that secretes a wax-like secret. At its lower end, the passage bends sharply, here the vertical part of the passage joins the horizontal one. The end of the horizontal part of the passage is closed by the tympanic membrane.

Cat ears should be kept clean, because an excess of earwax can develop an infection, otitis externa. The most common cause of ear disease in cats is mite infestation. They are visible through the auroscope and are usually located in the horizontal portion of the ear canal. In chronic otitis externa, the integumentary membrane thickens and clogs the ear canal, this may be accompanied by its ulceration. Over time, the animal can only be helped by a surgical operation called resection of the external auditory canal.

3. The middle ear is located in the cavity of the bone that makes up the skull. It
represented by the mid-ear cavity, three auditory ossicles and two muscles. The vibrations of the eardrum are transmitted to the bones - the hammer, incus and stapes, which rests on the membrane of the oval window, where the inner ear already begins. Thus, the middle ear resembles a drum with two membranes: one large and the other small. Through the bones, vibrations from one membrane are transmitted to another, changing the parameters and thereby adjusting the sound transmission. By tuning to vital sounds, some parameters are enhanced, others are attenuated. This is facilitated by the resonances of the middle ear, which are determined by the size and partly by the shape of its cavities; the ratio of the membranes is also important. Since the bones are located in a zigzag manner, they form, together with the auditory muscles, several levers, weakening and even blocking sounds that are too loud. Such protection from loud sounds is very important for the cat's hearing, because the perceiving (receptor) cells located in the inner ear simply could not work otherwise. Their main and most difficult task is to preferentially perceive weak sounds of a certain range, vital to the cat. Perceiving cells are the finest instrument, and nature has taken great care to protect them from overload. First of all, she immersed them in a liquid and placed them in a soft cover, protected from below by a filmy tissue with liquid, and from above covered by a bone case twisted in the form of a spiral (hence the second name of the inner ear - a snail). In humans, the cochlea-cochlea is twisted in 2.75 turns, and in cats, in 3. The place where the perceiving cells and numerous auxiliary structures are located has received a special name - Corti's organ... There are about 13,000 receptive cells in the cat's ear, slightly less than in humans. At its upper part, the receiving cell is covered with sensitive protrusions - "hairs" (not to be confused with the hairs of the auricle!). From below, the endings of the auditory nerve approach the receiving cell. Having received information about the sound, pre-processed by the perceiving cells, the nerve endings transmit it further along the fibers of the auditory nerve, which in a cat is much more than in a person (52,000 versus 30,000.)

5.Inner ear consists of a large number of closed tubes containing liquid. The cochlea amplifies the vibrations of the middle ear and allows the animal to hear sound. The semicircular bone canals contain nerve endings that register the movement of fluid in tubules at right angles to each other. Thanks to the movement of this fluid, the animal is able to maintain balance and orient itself in space.

Essentially, the eye is a liquid-filled ball located in the orbit of the skull. On the back of the eyeball are many muscles that move the eye in different directions.
The lens, pupil and ciliary body divide the eye into two parts: the anterior chamber of the eye, filled with intraocular fluid, and the posterior chamber, filled with the vitreous humor.
The outer dense layer of the eye is called sclera... In front of the sclera forms a transparent window, which is called cornea.
Normal pressure inside the eye is maintained by the formation and removal of intraocular fluid. When this mechanism is disrupted, intraocular pressure begins to grow, the eye increases in size, and the cornea becomes cloudy. This disease is called glaucoma.
The lens acts as a lens and is attached by ligaments to the ciliary body, which contains the muscles. The contraction of these muscles changes the shape of the lens, allowing the animal to focus the eye on objects located at different distances.
The back of the eye is covered with retina. In this layer, light-sensitive nerve endings are located, which transmit impulses along the optic nerve to the brain, where they are read and turn into a picture that the animal sees. At the back of the eyes of dogs and cats is a reflective membrane that reflects light. The eyes of dogs and cats glow in the dark, as small beams of light are reflected from this shell.
In the choroid, which consists of a network of blood vessels feeding the eyes, at the exit of the optic nerve is a layer of cells with crystalline inclusions - a mirror. In the depths of the eyeball (retina) with visual cells - rods and cones. In a cat, as a twilight animal, the retina of the eye is mainly supplied with rods, and only in the central part of the retina, in the area of \u200b\u200bacute vision, are cones concentrated
In front, the eye is protected by the upper and lower eyelids lined with mucous membranes, which completely cover the eye when closed. Cats use their eyelids to regulate the amount of light entering the eye. There are more receptive cells in the cat's eye than in small primates, as well as more neurons in the visual centers of the brain.
The junction of the eyelids is called corner of the eye.

Cats have third eyelid, which is closely adjacent to the shell of the eye in its inner corner. The third eyelid propels the tear fluid along the eye and additionally protects the eye. When the eye goes inside the orbit, and this happens when you feel unwell or when the amount of lubricant in the back of the eye decreases, the third eyelid closes the eye halfway to protect it from damage. In a stressful state (a long trip in a car or at an exhibition), the eyes are closed by the third eyelid.
The lacrimal gland is located under the third eyelid. Sometimes it increases and falls outside the third century, which is associated with certain problems.
The inner surface of the eyelids in contact with the cornea is called conjunctiva... Under the eyelids, the conjunctiva continues and forms the conjunctival sac. The surface of the eye is constantly wetted by a liquid (tear) that accumulates in the conjunctival sac. Its excess is secreted through a special channel located in the inner corner of the eye and going to the nose. With a large excess of tears, this channel becomes clogged, tears begin to flow along the front surface and can cause irritation and inflammation of the skin. The shape of the head, and especially the facial part of some flat-nosed breeds of long-haired cats, can be associated with difficulties in the outflow of tears, which leads to their accumulation in the corners of the eyes. Eyelashes grow at the junction of the skin and conjunctiva. Some cats may have an extra row of eyelashes that chafe the cornea and cause irritation. For various reasons, the eyelids are twisted, then the eyelashes also begin to rub the cornea, which leads to an inflammation called entropion.
More recently, it was believed that cats do not have color vision at all and that all objects around them look black and white to them, in much the same way as we see them on a TV screen. However, it has now been established that cats are still able to distinguish, albeit worse than us, several colors. But what they distinguish much better than us is shades of gray, up to 25 shades. ...

This feature of vision can be explained by the coloration of their prey - mice and voles, whose fur color varies from light gray to dark gray and brownish gray. Primates, including humans, have never needed such a distinction between shades of gray, and therefore evolution did not give them this feature.

Brain power has undoubtedly been a major factor in the evolution of the feline family. The reason why about seven million years ago one branch of this family, the Paleofelids, that is, relict cats, became extinct, was very likely due to the increase in the size and complexity of the brain of the modern cats that replaced them, the neofelids.

This can be judged not only by the skulls of modern species stored in museums, but also by the fossil remains of both extinct and existing species today. It is often difficult to determine the cause of the changes that have occurred. An example is the saber-toothed tiger: one group of these tigers, which became extinct only a few million years ago, had an unusually modern feline brain, but with some peculiarities. It is unclear whether these features should be attributed to changes in brain function or changes in the structure of the skull, which is forced to carry a heavy mass of teeth and muscles. However, the feline brain does not appear to have undergone major changes in the past ten million years.
In other words, the brain is not very different from that of the domestic cat.
Of course, the lion's brain is many times larger than the cat's brain in size, but does this make a lion smarter than a cat? This is not necessary at all, since a large body is covered with a large piece of skin with a large number of tactile receptors, and a huge mass of muscles requires an appropriate number of nerves to control these muscles. You can calculate how much brain mass is needed to perform certain main functions, and then calculate how much of the brain remains for more complex work - information processing.
The degree to which the brain of each animal species differs from the calculated standard is called the “intelligence quotient,” CI. A high CI does not necessarily reflect only the level of intelligence, it can be associated with the special requirements of the animal's lifestyle. For example, flying animals or those that swim under water, apparently, need more brain volume than simply living on the surface of the earth, firstly, because they perform more complex movements, and secondly, because, that they need to perceive the environment from different angles of view, both from above and below.
The lowest CI is in porcupines, socially inactive and, in case of danger, simply curling up into a ball. Monkeys have a high CI, not only because of their high learning ability, but also because of the complexity of their social life. All felines have the same high CI, except, for some unknown reason, the lynx. All carnivores have approximately average CI; it is significantly increased in some canines. This is partly due to the large size of the olfactory bulb in dogs compared to cats; this part of the brain, as its name suggests, processes information about smells. Indeed, a large olfactory bulb would not be able to fit into a short and flat cat's skull.
However, the difference in sensory ability cannot fully explain the differences in brain size. The complex social behavior of canines, such as wolves, is thought to require additional brain power. Most of the cat's brain controls their gymnastic, if not ballet, abilities. The cerebellum, which coordinates balance and movement, is significantly larger in cats than in other mammals, and most of the cerebral cortex is occupied with controlling movement. A large part of the cortex is involved in processing a huge amount of information supplied by the sensitive cat ears.

INTERNAL ORGANS The inner part of the cat's body is divided by a diaphragm into two parts: 1. The chest, which contains two pleural cavities and the pericardial cavity. 2. The abdominal cavity, which contains the peritoneal cavity.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Oxygen is needed to maintain the functions of the body's organs. This vital need is met by red blood cells (erythrocytes).
Circulating through the body, blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle, which directs it through the pulmonary artery to the lungs.

A small amount of fluid from the blood seeps into the tissue, from where it is collected in the system of other vessels, which is called the lymphatic. From the lymphatic system, fluid flows back into the blood. The lymphatic system has many glands and nodes along its entire length. These glands, which can become inflamed when an infection enters tissue, act as filters and remove bacteria and harmful substances from the blood. They are also responsible for the production of certain types of white blood cells (lymphocytes) and antibodies that protect the body from infection.
The spleen is located below the stomach, in the abdominal cavity. It produces some blood elements and removes old red blood cells. It also acts as a blood storage, so its size corresponds to the amount of blood in the circulatory system at a given time. In the medullary cavity of long bones is the bone marrow, which produces red blood cells and some types of white blood cells.

Blood contains:
Red blood cells that carry oxygen.
Leukocytes, which can kill bacteria and foreign substances inside the blood and produce antibodies to fight infection.
Platelets are the main part of the blood clotting mechanism.
All of these components are found in a liquid called plasma.
Blood coagulation - when blood seeps out of the vessels, fibrin fibers form a network in the plasma that traps blood cells. This forms a clot or blood clot. The remaining clear liquid is called serum.

Blood tests. Sometimes veterinarians take blood tests to find out:
The number of cells of each type in a standard blood volume. The total volume of cells in relation to plasma is called hematocrit and is determined by the volume occupied by the cells of the coagulated blood.
The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is the rate at which red blood cells precipitate when the blood remains stationary.
The content of enzymes and other substances in the blood.
The content of protective (protective) antibodies to various infections to determine the timing of vaccination or to check the effectiveness of vaccination.
These tests help in the diagnosis and prognosis of diseases.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The energy required by the organs for the growth and replacement of tissues, the body of the animal receives mainly from food. Food passes through the digestive tract, which converts its nutrients into a form that the body needs for absorption. The digestive tract is essentially a muscular tube, one end of which enters food and the other exits waste waste. A large number of glands are associated with the digestive system, they secrete various fluids into it, which facilitate the breakdown of food into its constituent elements.
In this case, the following digestive process occurs.

1. Food is bitten by teeth into small pieces, grinded or swallowed whole.
2. Saliva, which is produced by the salivary glands, lubricates food, and it passes into the esophagus and stomach, where digestion begins.
3. Esophagus - a tube that runs inside the neck and descends into the chest, bypasses the heart, passes through the diaphragm into the stomach. Large chunks can become lodged in the esophagus where it enters the rib cage at the base of the heart or when it enters the diaphragm. In these cases, surgery is required.
4. Entrance and exit from the stomach are limited by muscle rings called cardiac and pyloric sphincters. The pyloric sphincter regulates the exit of food from the stomach. The lining of the stomach secretes digestive juices, which aid the passage of food. Inflammation of the stomach is called gastritis.
5. Digestion continues in the small intestine with the help of bile and pancreatic secretions. Beneficial substances are absorbed from the lumen of the small intestine into the blood.
6. The digestive process with the help of bacteria, the absorption of nutrients and fluids continues in the large intestine.
7. The cecum of animals is the equivalent of the appendix in humans.
8. Stool (stool or stool) consists of waste and is "stored" in the rectum and then excreted.

Pancreas
The pancreas secretes secretions that aid digestion, and it also produces the hormone insulin, which circulates in the blood and regulates the amount of glucose.

Liver
In addition to producing bile, which helps digestion, the liver regulates the accumulation and use of carbohydrates, activates fats, detoxifies and removes toxic substances, and synthesizes blood proteins. It also helps stabilize body temperature.
Comment
The word "viscera" is used to describe all organs of the abdominal cavity.
Sometimes the rectum falls out through the anus, a disorder called rectal prolapse. This is usually associated with severe and prolonged diarrhea and requires veterinary intervention and possibly surgery.

URINARY SYSTEM

Fluids leave the kidney through the ureter, which leads to the bladder. From the bladder comes the urethra (urethra), which opens into the vulva in cats and into the penis in cats. In cats, the urethra is short, while in cats it is long and curved over the pelvis.
Small crystals or stones can build up in the bladder and urethra, blocking the urethra. This disorder occurs mainly in cats and requires immediate surgical intervention.
Nephritis - This term describes kidney inflammation.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Main function respiratory system - effective oxygen supply to blood. Breathing also provides thermoregulation by removing excess water. Expansion of the chest under the action pectoral muscles and bending of the diaphragm create negative pressure in chestdue to which the lungs inflate and draw in air through the nose, and with physical exertion through the mouth. Through the pharynx, which belongs to both the respiratory and digestive tracts, air passes into the larynx and reaches the lungs through the trachea. Inside the lungs, the trachea divides into two bronchi, which in turn, like branches on a tree, are divided into many bronchioles, ending in air sacs or alveoli. The blood circulating around the alveoli is saturated with oxygen. In structure, the lungs are similar to a bunch of grapes, where the alveoli are the berries. The nasal cavity is connected to the thin bone, the turbinate, and is covered with sensitive tissue. Its main functions are warming and filtering air, smelling. The nasal cavity is connected to the sinuses, or paranasal sinuses, which are cavities in the cranial bone.
The pharynx belongs to the respiratory and digestive tracts. When a cat eats, the trachea is closed by the epiglottis, and the nasal cavity is closed by the soft palate. The larynx consists of a cartilaginous tube. It prevents food from entering the trachea and participates in sound production (vocalization) due to the vibration of the vocal cords located in it.
The trachea is a straight cartilage tube that the C-shaped cartilage keeps open at all times. The "open" part of the cartilage is attached to the esophagus, allowing food lumps to pass through it. Respiratory rates in cats range from 10 to 30 breaths per minute.
cats have congenital heart defects, but this is rare.